Since their discovery in 1978 by Hill et al. and the development of the transverse holographic technique for their fabrication by Meltz et al. in 1989, fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) have become an important device for applications in optical communications, optical signal processing and fiber-optical sensors. A superstructured fiber Bragg grating (SFBG), also called a sampled fiber Bragg grating, is a special FBG that consists of a several small FBGs placed in close proximity to one another. SFBGs have attracted much attention in recent years with the discovery of techniques allowing the creation of equivalent chirp or equivalent phase shifts. The biggest advantage of an SFBG with equivalent chirp or equivalent phase shifts is the possibility to design and fabricate gratings with greatly varying phase and amplitude responses by adjusting the spatial profile of the superstructure. The realization of SFBGs with equivalent chirp or equivalent phase shifts requires only sub-millimeter precision. This is a relief from the sub-micron precision required by traditional approaches. In this thesis, the mathematical modeling of FBGs and SFBGs is reviewed. The use of SFBGs for various applications in photonic microwave signal processing is considered. Four main topics are presented in this thesis. The first topic is the use of SFBG as a photonic true-time delay (TTD) beamformer for phased array antennas (PAAs). The second topic addresses non-linearities in the group delay response of an SFBG with equivalent chirp in its sampling period. An SFBG with an equivalent chirp using only a linear chirp coefficient may yield a group delay response that deviates from the linear response required by a TTD beamformer. In the thesis, a technique to improve the linearity of the group delay response is proposed and an adaptive algorithm to find the optimal linear and non-linear chirp coefficients to produce the best linear group delay response is described. Since no closed-form solution exists to represent the amplitude and phase responses of an SFBG, we rely on a Fourier transform analogy under a weak grating approximation as a starting point in the design of an SFBG. Simulations are then used to refine the response of the SFBG. The algorithm proposed provides an optimal set of chirp coefficients that minimizes the error in the group delay response. Four gratings are fabricated using the optimized chirp coefficients and their application in a TTD PAA system is discussed. The third topic discusses the use of an SFBG with equivalent phase shifts in its sampling period as a means to realize optical single sideband (SSB) modulation. SSB modulation eliminates the power penalty caused by chromatic dispersion experienced by an optical signal traveling through a long length of optical fiber. By introducing two π phase shifts through equivalent sampling to the SFBG, two ultra-narrow transmission bands are created in the grating stop band of the +/- 1st spectral orders. In the proposed system, a double-sideband plus carrier (DSB+C) modulated optical signal is sent to the input of an optical SSB filter based on the equivalent phase-shift SFBG in order to select the optical carrier and a single sideband, effectively blocking one sideband from propagating. Finally, the fourth topic focuses on the implementation of a photonic microwave bandpass filter based on an SFBG with equivalent chirp. Photonic microwave filters are used to process microwave signals in the optical domain. By using a technique called phase-modulation to intensity-modulation (PM-IM) conversion, a two-tap delay line filter is created with one negative tap. A single SFBG with a chirp in its sampling period is used as a means to achieve the PM-IM conversion for the two taps. Two phase modulated optical carriers are used to generate the two taps, each entering a different port of the SFBG and thus experiencing an opposite dispersion value. The two optical signals are then recombined before being sent to a photodetector (PD) where the filtered microwave signal is recovered.

The content of this thesis encompasses the fundamentals, modelling, chip design, nanofabrication process, measurement setup, and experimental results of devices exploiting the optical properties of phase-change chalcogenide materials. Special attention is paid to integrated Si₃N₄ nanophotonic circuits for optical switching and memory applications, as well as to multilayer stacks for colour modulation. Herein, the implementation of the first robust, non-volatile, phase-change photonic memory is presented. By utilising optical near-field effects for Read, Write and Erase operations, bit storage of up to eight transmission levels is demonstrated in a single device employing Ge₂Sb₂Te₅ as the active material. These on-chip memory cells feature single-shot read-out of the transmission state and switching energies as low as 13.4pJ at speeds approaching 1GHz. The capability to readily switch between intermediate states is also demonstrated, a feature that requires complex iteration-based algorithms in electronic phase-change memories. This photonic memory is not only the first truly non-volatile memory---a long-term elusive goal in integrated photonics---but could also potentially represent the first multi-level memory, including electronic counterparts, that requires no computational post-processing or drift correction. These findings provide a pathway towards solving the throughput limitations of current computer architectures by eliminating the so-called von-Neumann bottleneck and portend a new paradigm in all-photonic memory, non-conventional computing, and tunable photonic devices. Finally, novel capabilities in electro-optic colour modulation using phase-change materials are demonstrated. In particular, this thesis offers the first implementation of Ag₃In₄Sb₇₆Te₁₇-based optical cavities for colour modulation on low-dimensional multilayer stacks. Moreover, "gray-scale" image writing is demonstrated by establishing intermediate levels of crystallisation via voltage modulation. This finding, in turn, corresponds to the first demonstration of nonvolatile colour-depth modulation in the emerging phase-change materials nanodisplay technology, featuring resolutions down to 50nm. Furthermore, a comprehensive comparison is carried out for two types of materials: growth- (Ag₃In₄Sb₇₆Te₁₇) and nucleation-dominated (Ge₂Sb₂Te₅) alloys in terms of colour, energy efficiency, and resolution. These results provide new tools for the new generation of bistable and ultra-high-resolution displays and smart glasses while allowing for other potential applications in photonics and optoelectronics.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:55:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DaviBB.pdf: 1037005 bytes, checksum: 218c25a038f89588a46ddca7509b0705 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-07-06 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / The aim of this work is to characterize and use the characteristic parameters of the planar structures constructed with fin lines looking for their applications in devices, using PBG Photonic Band Gap photonic materials as substrate, operating in the millimeter and optic wave bands.The PBG theory will be applied for the relative permittivity attainment for the PBG photonic substrate s and p polarizations. The parameters considered in the structures characterization are the complex propagation constant and the characteristic impedance of unilateral and bilateral fin lines that were obtained by the use of the TTL Transverse Transmission Line Method, together with the Method of the Moments. The final part of this work comprises studies related to the behavior of the asymmetric unilateral fin line coupler with photonic substrate. This research opens perspectives for new works in this modern area. Numerical results are shown by means of bi-dimensional and three-dimensional graphics. Conclusions and suggestions for future works are also presented / O presente trabalho tem como objetivo caracterizar e utilizar os par?metros de estruturas planares constru?das com linhas de l?minas visando a sua utiliza??o em circuitos, com materiais fot?nicos do tipo PBG Photonic Band Gap como substrato, operando nas faixas de ondas milim?tricas e ?pticas. A teoria PBG ser? aplicada para a obten??o da permissividade relativa para as polariza??es s e p dos substratos compostos de material fot?nico PBG. Os par?metros considerados na caracteriza??o das estruturas s?o a constante de propaga??o complexa e a imped?ncia caracter?stica, de linhas de l?mina unilaterais e bilaterais, que foram obtidos atrav?s da utiliza??o do m?todo da Linha de Transmiss?o Transversa LTT com o aux?lio do M?todo dos Momentos. Nesse trabalho foi realizado ainda, um estudo do funcionamento do acoplador com linha de l?mina unilateral assim?trica com substrato fot?nico. Esta pesquisa abre perspectivas para novos trabalhos nesta moderna ?rea. A an?lise te?rica computacional desse trabalho se mostrou precisa, com compara??es de outros trabalhos, podendo ser empregada em outros dispositivos que utilizem a linha de l?mina como estrutura b?sica, e materiais ?pticos. Resultados num?rico-computacionais em forma de gr?fico em duas e tr?s dimens?es para todas as an?lises realizadas s?o apresentados, para as estruturas propostas que tem como substratos materiais fot?nicos. S?o apresentadas conclus?es e sugest?es para a continuidade deste trabalho

Orientador: Hugo Enrique Hernández Figueroa / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Elétrica e de Computação / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T13:53:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 MalheirosSilveira_GilliardNardel_M.pdf: 3128908 bytes, checksum: 81e325450d7a5eff14ab074c7716b862 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Esta dissertação aborda a modelagem e análise de Dispositivos Fotônicos e de RF via códigos home-made e comerciais baseados no método dos elementos finitos (MEF) e, em alguns casos, resolução de problemas inversos com auxílio de AG. Primeiramente é feita uma breve revisão sobre elementos finitos e AG, bem como alguns fenômenos eletromagnéticos voltados às aplicações estudadas. Os estudos de problemas fotônicos abordaram dois problemas gerais: Otimização da banda fotônica proibida absoluta em cristais fotônicos bidimensionais e propostas de fibras de cristais fotônicos (PCFs, Photonic Crystal Fibers) voltadas para aplicações não-lineares e compensação de dispersão. Algumas dessas análises envolveram a resolução de problemas inversos via AG; em que foi proposta uma codificação com certa generalização para problemas envolvendo PCF. As propostas envolvendo RF abordaram antenas para etiquetas RFID (Radio Frequency Identification). Foi explorado o comportamento dual-band a partir de uma antena do tipo dipolo modificada. / Abstract: This dissertation addresses the modeling and analysis of photonic and RF devices by home-made and commercial codes based on the finite element method (FEM). In some cases, inverse problems have been solved with the aid of genetic algorithms (GA). In the introduction a brief review of finite elements and GA are presented as well as some electromagnetic phenomena related with the applications here analyzed. Concerning the photonic problems, our studies were restricted to two general problems: Optimization of absolute photonic band gap in two-dimensional photonic crystals and the proposal of photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) aimed for non-linear and dispersion compensation applications. Some of the analysis involved the solution of inverse problems by means of GA, where, a codification with some generalization to problems involving PCFs was proposed. The proposals involving RF antennas for RFID (radio frequency identification) tags included the study of modified dipole antennas with dual-band operation. / Mestrado / Telecomunicações e Telemática / Mestre em Engenharia Elétrica

Master of Science / Department of Physics / Kristan L. Corwin / We investigate the nonlinear spectroscopy of acetylene in the near infrared region inside a photonic band gap fiber. The near infrared region of the optical spectrum is an area of intensive research due to its relevance to telecommunication and optical metrology. Acetylene provides a large number of reference transitions coincident with the international telecommunication band. Acetylene contains about 50 strong lines between 1510 nm and 1540 nm in the ν1+ν3 ro-vibrational combination band. We have observed the Doppler-free saturated spectrum of several of these lines. The light from a tunable diode laser at ~1531 nm, resonant with the P(11) transition, is amplified by an erbium doped fiber amplifier and split into a strong pump beam and weak probe beam which counter-propagate inside the gas-filled fiber. The measured Doppler linewidth of the P(11) line at room temperature is about 467 MHz wide. The sub-Doppler profile over a pressure range of 200-1600 mT appears as a narrow absorption feature about 20-40 MHz wide, even at the low pump power of ~10 mW. It is found that for a fiber with an 80 cm length, 20 core size, pumped with 29 mw, the optimum pressure is ~530mT. But the optimum pressure condition will further decrease when the fiber length increases.

La lumière est incroyable polyvalente pour mesurer toutes sortes de grandeurs physiques : température, champ électrique, déplacement et déformation, etc. Les capteurs photoniques sont des candidats prometteurs pour les développements de nouvelles générations de capteurs en raison de leurs vertus de sensibilité élevée, une grande gamme dynamique, etc. Les capteurs intégrés et ceux placés en bout de fibre sur une couche mince de niobate de lithium seront ici étudiés en explorant l’électro-optique ainsi que les pyro-électronique afin de concevoir des capteurs de champs et de capteurs de température. / Light is incredibly versatile for measuring all kinds of physical quantities :temperature, electric field (E-field), displacement and strain etc. Photonic sensors are promising candidates for the new generation of sensors developments due to their virtues of high sensitivity, large dynamic range and compact size etc. Integrated and on-fiber end photonic sensors on thin film lithium niobate (TFLN) exploring the electro-optic (EO) and pyro-electric effects are studied in this thesis in order to design E-field sensors and temperature sensors (T-sensors). These studies aim to develop sensors with high sensitivity and compact size. To achieve that aim, sensors that are made of photonic crystals (PhC) cavities are studied by sensing the measurand through the resonance wavelength interrogation method. In integrated sensor studies, intensive numerical calculations by PWE method, mode solving technique and FDTD methods are carried out for the design of high light confinement waveguiding structures on TFLN and suitable PhC configurations. Four types of waveguide (WG) structures (ridge WG, strip loaded WG, slot WG and double slot WG) are studied with a large range of geometrical parameters. Among them, slot WG yields the highest confinement factor while strip loaded WG is an easier option for realizations. Bragg grating is designed in slot WG with an ultra compact size (about 0.5µm×0.7µm ×6µm) and is employed to design PhC cavity. A moderate resonance Q of about 300 in F-P like cavity where the mirrors are made of PhC is achieved with ER of about 70% of the transmission. Theoretical minimum E-field sensitivity of this slot Bragg grating structure can be as low as 200 µV/m. On the other hand, Si3N4 strip loaded WG is designed with 2D PhC structure and a low resonance Q of about 100 is achieved. Fabrications of nano-metrical WG such as ridge WG Si3N4 strip loaded are demonstrated. However, the realization of nanometric components on LN presents a big challenge.In the on-fiber end sensor studies, guided resonance, oftentimes referred to as Fano resonance due to its asymmetric lineshape, is studied with different PhC lattice types. A Suzuki phase lattice (SPL) PhC presenting a Fano resonance at the vicinity of 1500 nm has been studied and demonstrated as temperature sensor with sensitivity of 0.77 nm/oC with a size of only 25 µm × 24 µm. In addition, guided resonances on rectangular lattice PhC have been systematically studied through band diagram calculations, 2D-FDTD and 3D- FDTD simulations.

Since their discovery in 1978 by Hill et al. and the development of the transverse holographic technique for their fabrication by Meltz et al. in 1989, fiber Bragg gratings (FBG) have become an important device for applications in optical communications, optical signal processing and fiber-optical sensors. A superstructured fiber Bragg grating (SFBG), also called a sampled fiber Bragg grating, is a special FBG that consists of a several small FBGs placed in close proximity to one another. SFBGs have attracted much attention in recent years with the discovery of techniques allowing the creation of equivalent chirp or equivalent phase shifts. The biggest advantage of an SFBG with equivalent chirp or equivalent phase shifts is the possibility to design and fabricate gratings with greatly varying phase and amplitude responses by adjusting the spatial profile of the superstructure. The realization of SFBGs with equivalent chirp or equivalent phase shifts requires only sub-millimeter precision. This is a relief from the sub-micron precision required by traditional approaches. In this thesis, the mathematical modeling of FBGs and SFBGs is reviewed. The use of SFBGs for various applications in photonic microwave signal processing is considered. Four main topics are presented in this thesis. The first topic is the use of SFBG as a photonic true-time delay (TTD) beamformer for phased array antennas (PAAs). The second topic addresses non-linearities in the group delay response of an SFBG with equivalent chirp in its sampling period. An SFBG with an equivalent chirp using only a linear chirp coefficient may yield a group delay response that deviates from the linear response required by a TTD beamformer. In the thesis, a technique to improve the linearity of the group delay response is proposed and an adaptive algorithm to find the optimal linear and non-linear chirp coefficients to produce the best linear group delay response is described. Since no closed-form solution exists to represent the amplitude and phase responses of an SFBG, we rely on a Fourier transform analogy under a weak grating approximation as a starting point in the design of an SFBG. Simulations are then used to refine the response of the SFBG. The algorithm proposed provides an optimal set of chirp coefficients that minimizes the error in the group delay response. Four gratings are fabricated using the optimized chirp coefficients and their application in a TTD PAA system is discussed. The third topic discusses the use of an SFBG with equivalent phase shifts in its sampling period as a means to realize optical single sideband (SSB) modulation. SSB modulation eliminates the power penalty caused by chromatic dispersion experienced by an optical signal traveling through a long length of optical fiber. By introducing two π phase shifts through equivalent sampling to the SFBG, two ultra-narrow transmission bands are created in the grating stop band of the +/- 1st spectral orders. In the proposed system, a double-sideband plus carrier (DSB+C) modulated optical signal is sent to the input of an optical SSB filter based on the equivalent phase-shift SFBG in order to select the optical carrier and a single sideband, effectively blocking one sideband from propagating. Finally, the fourth topic focuses on the implementation of a photonic microwave bandpass filter based on an SFBG with equivalent chirp. Photonic microwave filters are used to process microwave signals in the optical domain. By using a technique called phase-modulation to intensity-modulation (PM-IM) conversion, a two-tap delay line filter is created with one negative tap. A single SFBG with a chirp in its sampling period is used as a means to achieve the PM-IM conversion for the two taps. Two phase modulated optical carriers are used to generate the two taps, each entering a different port of the SFBG and thus experiencing an opposite dispersion value. The two optical signals are then recombined before being sent to a photodetector (PD) where the filtered microwave signal is recovered.

Selected methods of Raman spectroscopy, like surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and single molecule Raman spectroscopy, are described in this diploma work. The basis of two methods for numerical modelling of optical properties of micro- and nanoparticles are prefaced. The methods are Discrete Dipole Approximation and Finite Difference Time Domain. Micro- and nanoparticles are used in surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy and other nanospectroscopic methods. Further, the main instrumentation needed for Raman spectroscopy is described. The first part of experimental section of this work is numerical modelling of photonic nanojet that occures behind dielectric microparticles. This phenomenon leads to a new technique of confocal microscopy with Raman spectra measuring. The second experimental section contains results of Raman spectra measurement with beta-carotene and surface-enhanced Raman spectra of beta-carotene in silver-sol solution.

Les progrès récents des nanotechnologies permettent d'envisager de nouvelles générations de diodes laser. L'objectif de cette thèse est d'étudier l'apport des cristaux photoniques bidimensionnels pour explorer la faisabilité d'un réseau monolithique de diodes laser tout cristal photonique émettant au voisinage de 2,3 µm en filière GaSb. Chaque laser doit répondre à un certain nombre de critères : une émission monomode à une longueur d'onde stable et précise, une émission fine spectralement avec une puissance de sortie élevée, une longueur d'onde accordable, présentant aucun saut de mode sur la gamme d'accordabilité, un fonctionnement à température ambiante, sous pompage électrique et en régime continu. Ces critères répondent au cahier des charges de la technique de spectroscopie d'absorption à diodes laser accordables multiplexées (MTDLAS : Multiplexed Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy). La technique de MTDLAS est ici mise en œuvre pour les applications de détection de gaz dans le moyen infra-rouge (MIR), soit la gamme de longueur d'onde allant de 2 à 5 µm. Cette gamme de longueur d'onde présente plusieurs fenêtres de transparence (autour de 2,3 µm et de 3,4 à 4 µm) où l'absorption par la vapeur d'eau et le dioxyde de carbone est très faible. L'existence de ces fenêtres est mise à profit pour la détection de molécules gazeuses de l'atmosphère, telles que le monoxyde de carbone ou le méthane. Pour mes travaux de thèse, la longueur d'onde d'émission laser retenue est de 2,3 µm. Cette longueur d'onde correspond à la fenêtre de transparence pour la détection notamment du CH4, du CO et du HF. Ainsi, ce mémoire présente la conception de diodes laser tout cristal photonique, et le développement d'un procédé de fabrication de ces diodes lasers, qui a mené à la réalisation d'une série de composants. Nous montrons qu'une déformation de la maille photonique, associée à une optimisation de la largeur du guide, permet d'obtenir un fonctionnement monomode stable. Se basant sur ce principe, plusieurs géométries de mailles de cristaux photoniques ont été étudiées. Puis, nous nous attachons à lever le verrou technologique de la gravure profonde à fort rapport d'aspect dans les alliages AlGaAsSb. Pour cela, nous présentons des études paramétriques de gravure, conduisant à la mise au point d'un procédé optimisé de gravure profonde. Des profondeurs de gravure de 3,4 µm pour des trous de 370 nm de diamètre, soit un rapport d'aspect de plus de 9, ont ainsi pu être atteintes. Cette étape critique de gravure a été insérée dans un procédé technologique de fabrication de diodes laser tout cristal photonique, que nous avons mis au point. Cela a mené à la réalisation d'une série de composants. / Recent advances in nanotechnology allow considering new generations of laser diodes. The purpose of this thesis is to study the contribution of two-dimensional photonic crystals to design and fabricate a monolithic array of laser diodes emitting near 2.3 µm in GaSb system. Each laser in the array has to respond to stringent criteria : a stable and precisely predefined single-mode emission wavelength, high output power, tunable wavelength with no mode hopping over the tunability range. Moreover, such device should operate at room temperature, under electrical pumping and continuous regime. These criteria respond to the specifications of the technique of Multiplexed Tunable Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy (MTDLAS). The MTDLAS technique is here implemented for gas sensing applications in the Mid-wavelength infrared (MidIR), corresponding to the wavelength range from 2 to 5 microns. This wavelength range contains two transparency windows (around 2.3 µm and from 3.4 to 4 µm), where the absorption by water vapor and carbon dioxide is reduced. The existence of these windows is harnessed for the detection of gaseous molecules in the atmosphere, such as carbon monoxide or methane. For my thesis work, the chosen wavelength of laser emission is 2.3 µm. This wavelength corresponds to a transparency window allowing detection of CH4, CO and HF. This dissertation presents the design of all photonic crystal laser diode, and the development of a manufacturing process of such device, which led to the production of a set of components. We show that the engineering of the photonic lattice combined with an optimization of the width of the laser waveguide provide stable, single-mode emission operation. Based on this principle, several geometries for photonic crystal lattice were studied. Then we tackle the technological challenge of deep etching with high aspect ratio in AlGaAsSb alloys. For this, we present parametric studies of etching, leading to the development of an optimized process for deep etching. We succeed to etch holes of 370 nm diameter and 3.4 µm depths, corresponding at an aspect ratio in excess of 9. We have developed a technological manufacturing process of all photonic crystal laser diodes, where this critical etching step has been successful inserted. This led to the realization of a set of components.

Microcantilevers have been investigated as high sensitivity, label free biosensors for approximately 15 years. In nearly all cases, a thin gold film deposited on the microcantilevers is used as an intermediate attachment layer because of the convenience of thiol-gold chemistry. Unfortunately, this attachment chemistry can be unstable when used with complex sample media such as blood plasma. The Nordin group at BYU has recently developed an all-silicon in-plane photonic microcantilever (PMCL) technology to serve as a platform for label-free biosensing. It has the advantage of being readily scalable to simultaneous readout of many PMCLs in array format, and allows integration with polymer microfluidics to facilitate the introduction of biological samples and reagents. An essential processing step for the transformation of the PMCL into a practical biosensor is the ability to effectively immobilize active biological receptors directly on silicon PMCL surfaces such that ligand binding generates sufficient surface stress to cause measureable PMCL deflection. This dissertation presents the development of a method to functionalize the sensor surface of all-silicon in-plane photonic microcantilever (PMCL) arrays. This method employs a materials inkjet printer for non-contact jetting and a fluid that is custom designed for ink-jetting and biological applications with approximately 1 pL droplet size. The method facilitates the application of different receptors on select PMCLs with drop placement accuracy in the +/- 7.5 μm range. The functionalization fluid facilitates further processing using humidity control to achieve full coverage of only the PMCL's top surface and removal of dissolved salts to improve uniformity of receptor coverage and to prevent fouling of the sensor surface. Once a functionalization method was successfully developed, a series of experiments were performed to investigate the amount of surface stress that can be generated when receptors are immobilized directly to the silicon surface. In one series of experiments, a 4.8 μM streptavidin solution was used with biotin immobilized on multiple PMCLs to demonstrate adsorption-induced surface stress and concomitant deflection of the PMCL. The group observed ~ 15 nm PMCL deflection on average, with a corresponding surface stress of approximately 4 mN/m. These experiments yield the sensor response in real-time and employ a combination of multiple PMCLs functionalized as either sensors or unfunctionalized to serve as references. Investigation of various attachment chemistries is included, as well as a comparison with and without passivation of non-sensor surfaces. Investigated passivation strategies prevented ligand binding from generating a differential surface stress. Failure modes and physical mechanisms for adsorption-induced surface stress are discussed. Immobilization and passivation strategies for antibody-based biosensing are demonstrated with fluorescence microscopy and a corresponding PMCL sensing experiment using rabbit anti-goat F(ab') fragments as the receptors and Alex Fluor 488 labeled goat anti-rabbit IgGs as the ligand. While the results of these experiments remain inconclusive, suggestions for future research involving the PMCL sensor array are recommended.