A operação e gerência de empreendimentos mineiros são tarefas normalmente difíceis e complexas. Para otimizar toda a operação, os engenheiros precisam lidar com muitos aspectos técnicos e restrições, como a modelagem geológica, estimativa de reservas, determinação da necessidade de blendagem, projeto das cavas ótimas e operacionais, custos operacionais, questões ambientais, entre outros. Nesse sentido, o posicionamento de infraestruturas de superfície é um dos pontos críticos dentro do planejamento de mina. Aproximar as estruturas da cava, com o intuito de reduzir custos operacionais, pode interferir em eventuais expansões da cava em novos e favoráveis cenários. Nesses casos, impactos no valor presente líquido (VPL) do projeto são inevitáveis e precisam ser tratados tecnicamente, avaliando um grande número de cenários alternativos para delinear uma estratégia que incremente a lucratividade do projeto. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar, por meio de comparações de VPL entre diferentes cenários de múltiplas restrições de superfície, sob incerteza geológica, a possibilidade de mover pilhas de estéril e outras infraestruturas de suas atuais posições e/ou definir prioridades e mensurar o impacto que cada restrição representa na lucratividade do projeto. A metodologia foi aplicada a uma mina de fosfato para ilustrar como determinar a melhor alternativa em uma perspectiva de planejamento de mina de longo prazo. Utilizando o método de cavas híbridas, aplicado ao modelo de teores simulados, foi possível identificar zonas de probabilidade de ocorrência dentro da cava matemática, o que forneceu informações cruciais para auxiliar na tomada de decisão a respeito da necessidade de relocação de estruturas. / The operation and management of mining enterprises are usually difficult and complex tasks. To optimize the entire operation the engineers must deal with several technical aspects and constraints, such as orebody modelling, reserves estimation, determination of blending necessity, optimum and operational pit designs, operational costs, environmental issues, among others. In this sense, locating surface infrastructures is one of the most critical mine planning concerns. Approximating these structures to the pit, in order to reduce the operational costs, might interfere with future pit expansions in new favorable scenarios. In such cases, impacts on project’s net present value (NPV) are inevitable and must be deal technically, evaluating several alternative scenarios to delineate a strategy to maximize profitability. The aim of this study is to evaluate, through NPV comparisons considering different scenarios with multiple constraints, under geological uncertainty, the possibility of moving waste piles and infrastructure buildings from their current position and/or defining priorities to after measuring the impact that each constraint represents on the project´s profitability. The methodology will be applied to a phosphate mine, to determine the best alternative from a long-term mine planning perspective. Using the hybrid pits method, applied to a simulated grades model, allowed the identification os occurrence probability zones within mathematical pit, providing critical data to support decision making regarding infrastructure relocation.

Submitted by Silvana Teresinha Dornelles Studzinski (sstudzinski) on 2016-11-16T17:57:13Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Natália Machado Mergen_.pdf: 3406281 bytes, checksum: 7a4504fe75f81db4d6a7296de374cce9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-11-16T17:57:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Natália Machado Mergen_.pdf: 3406281 bytes, checksum: 7a4504fe75f81db4d6a7296de374cce9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-08-03 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / PROSUP - Programa de Suporte à Pós-Gradução de Instituições de Ensino Particulares / Nesta dissertação serão analisadas estruturas arqueológicas relacionadas às populações Jê Meridionais, existentes no município de São José do Cerrito, no Planalto Catarinense. A análise busca identificar indícios de complexidade em assentamentos do grupo, datados em diferentes períodos de ocupação. Estes, quando relacionados num mesmo processo, revelam diferenças na estruturação dos assentamentos, dados que contribuem para uma compreensão maior deste processo. Através do estudo dos assentamentos foram identificados três momentos de ocupação, que podem ser relacionados às mudanças ambientais ocorridas na região. No primeiro momento existem assentamentos rápidos, a céu aberto, em áreas de campo, num ambiente com recursos dispersos. No segundo momento existem assentamentos mais estáveis e mais prolongados, com estruturas subterrâneas ainda sem cerâmica, num ambiente onde os recursos da araucária começaram a se concentrar. No terceiro momento existem assentamentos mais sedentários e longos, com estruturas subterrâneas, estruturas cerimoniais e uso de cerâmica, num ambiente com recursos abundantes e estáveis. Neste último período, as estruturas subterrâneas também se transformaram, passando de estruturas grandes para estruturas geminadas e pequenas. Esta dinamicidade promove uma relativização das concepções que buscam associar todos os sítios com estruturas atribuídas ao Jê Meridional como pertencentes ao mesmo período cronológico. Esta diversificação questiona as visões que enxergam as estruturas como parte de uma única etapa de ocupação. / In this dissertation, archeological structures related to the Jê Meridional people, from the municipality of São José do Cerrito, in the state of Santa Catarina, will be analyzed. The analysis aims to identify traces of complexity in settlements corresponding to different periods of occupation of the group. These settlements, when compared to each other in a same process, reveal differences in the structuration of the settlements, which can contribute to a larger understanding of this process. Three different moments of occupation were identified which we can relate to environmental changes in the region. At the first moment, there are speedy settlements, on the open air, on campo’s areas, in a general environment with scattered resources. At a second moment, the settlements are more stable and lasting, with pit houses, still without pottery, in an environment where the resources of the Araucaria tree start to concentrate. At a third moment, the settlements are more sedentary and even more lasting, with pit houses, ceremonial structures and the use of pottery, in an environment with plentiful and stable resources. In this last period, the pit houses change from large to geminate and smaller structures. This observed dynamicity relativizes the conceptions that try to associate all the sites with the mentioned structures of the Jê Meridional to the same chronological period. This diversification questions the view that all these structures are part of a single stage of occupation.

Access to appropriate sanitation facilities as well as access to clean drinking water are considered fundamental human rights (Carr, 2001; Bjorklund & Sjodin, 2010), yet roughly 2.5 billion people on the planet lack access to an improved form of sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2014). Additionally, many entities responsible for emergency excreta management and sanitation management design guidelines, specifically solids accumulation rates in latrine pits, use rates that are 30-60 years old and may be established from dated knowledge on diet and lifestyle trends (Franceys et al., 1992; Harvey et al., 2002; Harvey, 2007). Using solids accumulation rates that are dated as well as non-local can lead to under design of latrine pits (latrine pits fill faster than expected and designed) or over design of latrine pits (resources and materials are over used in construction and design). Previous research showed that solids accumulation rates in pit latrines ranged from 18 L/person/year to 70 L/person/year though no accumulation rates have been reported for schools. The reported differences in solids accumulation rates were found to depend largely on local user rates and behaviors, the amount of material added to the latrine (both organic and inorganic matter), and the porosity of the soil surrounding the pit. Wood (2013) suggested that solid waste could compose 10-40% of waste accumulated in a pit. Furthermore, fecal generation rates of individuals were also found to differ by country, region and individual (Franceys et al., 1992). An assessment of several methods for measuring accumulation rates was also performed. It was determined that the laser distance meter technique, as well as the use of a graduated metal rod were the best two ways to determine slab to pit content depths in rural communities. Compared to other methods, such as the stereographic imaging technique, and the automated laser scanner technique, the laser distance meter technique and the use of a graduated rod require less expertise and do not require camera and computer resources. This study also developed a method to assess solids accumulation rates of latrines at three rural schools in Saclepea City, Nimba County, Liberia. Depth measurements were taken from the latrine slab to the surface of the pit contents from early May 2014 until mid-June 2014. The accumulation rates were found to be extremely similar for each latrine for all measurements taken, with differences in depth of only 1-3 cm observed over the six-week measurement period. Little research was identified on the effects of feminine waste on solids accumulation rates in latrines and no literature was found concerning the effects of feminine excretions on the degradation of pit contents. More research is thus needed to assess the possible effects the addition of menstrual blood and menstrual excretions can have on degradation rates as well as the lifespan of viruses and other infectious agents in pit contents and the surrounding soil. This is particularly important with the presence of contaminated wastes from victims of Ebola Virus Disease being disposed of in latrines and other sanitation infrastructure in rural areas of West Africa.

Memoria para optar al título de Ingeniero Civil de Minas / El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo comparar la metodología tradicional frente la metodología de agendamiento directo de bloques en cada aspecto de la planificación a largo plazo para la minería de cielo abierto a través de un caso de estudio, el cual corresponde a un modelo de bloques de oro obtenido a través de la librería Minelib. Para la comparación se usaron datos reales, los cuales se obtuvieron a través de la misma librería del modelo, con los cuales se procedió a definir los parámetros básicos para la planificación. En la metodología tradicional se definieron 5 fases en base a los pits anidados obtenidos, en cambio para la metodología DBS se obtuvieron 7 periodos para llevar a diseño. Además, a través de las herramientas de Doppler se definieron los planes de producción, que resultaron para ambas metodologías con una capacidad mina escogida de 17 [Mtons/año] y una vida de 7 años. Cabe destacar que la mina contenía de dos pits de diferente tamaño y extensión, y cada uno se evaluó por separado para aplicar en forma correcta las restricciones operacionales por fase. Con estos resultados se procedió a realizar una operativización con el diseño minero de las fases y periodos acorde a cada metodología según restricciones operacionales a través del software Vulcan, donde la metodología tradicional logra extraer un total de 24 bancos y la metodología DBS extrae 25 bancos en el pit más grande, y para el pit más pequeño ambas metodologías logran extraer 12 bancos. Con estos diseños se llevó a cabo una cubicación con el fin de generar una secuencia de extracción a través de planilla de cálculo y posteriormente dimensionar las flotas de equipos que se utilizaran para el estudio. La secuencia de extracción obtenida para ambas metodologías entrego un plan de producción suavizado y que fijó la vida de la mina en 9 años debido que la capacidad máxima alcanzada por la planta fue de 10 [Mtons/año] en conjunto con las limitantes operacionales. Una vez definida la secuencia de extracción se procedió a calcular los costos para finalmente obtener el VAN de cada caso, donde la metodología tradicional reportó un VAN de 626.4 MUSD, en cambio a la metodología DBS un VAN de 658.1 MUSD, lo que equivale a una diferencia del 5%. Se concluye con esto que, desde el punto de vista económico, la metodología DBS no genera una mayor diferencia de lo que se obtiene en la metodología tradicional. Por otro lado, las secuencias de extracción y así mismo el diseño minero de las fases de la metodología DBS logran ser mejores que la de la metodología tradicional en términos de tener menores distancias por año y menor extracción de lastre adicional, por lo que resulta interesante generar estudios enfocados a yacimientos con más de un mineral de interés, así como la integración del blending en los criterios de decisión, que puedan a prueba esta alternativa de planificación. Con esto se lograría aportar y complementar los estudios realizados en torno al agendamiento directo de bloques.

Methods for estimating productivity and costs, and dependent equipment selection process, have needed to be increasingly reliable. Estimated productivity and costs must be as accurate as possible in reflecting actual productivity and costs experienced by mining operations to accommodate the long-term trend for diminishing commodity prices, For loading and hauling equipment operating in open pit mines, some of the interrelated estimating criteria have been investigated for better understanding; and, consequently, more reliable estimates of production and costs, also more effective equipment selection process. Analysis recognizes many of the interrelated criteria as random variables that can most effectively be reviewed, analyzed and compared in terms of statistical mathematical parameters. Emphasized throughout is the need for management of the cyclical loading and hauling system using conventional shovels/excavators/loaders and mining trucks to sustain an acceptable “rhythm” for best practice productivity and most-competitive unit-production costs. Outcomes of the research include an understanding that variability of attributes needs to be contained within acceptable limits. Attributes investigated include truck payloads, bucket loads, loader cycle time, truck loading time and truck cycle time. Selection of “ultra-class” mining trucks (≥ 290 -tonne payload) and suitable loading equipment is for specialist mining applications only. Where local operating environment and cost factors favourably supplement diminishing cost-benefits of truck scale, ultra-class trucks may be justified. Bigger is not always better – only where bigger can be shown to be better by reasons in addition to the modest cost benefits of ultra-class equipment. Truck over-loading may, to a moderate degree, increase productivity, but only at increased unit cost. / From a unit-cost perspective it is better to under-load than overload mining trucks. Where unit production cost is more important than absolute productivity, under-trucking is favoured compared with over-trucking loading equipment. Bunching of mining trucks manifests as a queuing effect – a loss of effective truck hours. To offset the queuing effect, required productivity needs to be adjusted to anticipate “bunching inefficiency”. The “basic number of trucks” delivered by deterministic estimating must provide for bunching inefficiency before application of simulation applications or stochastic analysis is used to determine the necessary number of trucks in the fleet. In difficult digging conditions it is more important to retain truck operating rhythm than to focus on achieving target payload by indiscriminately adding loader passes. Where trucks are waiting to load, operational tempo should be restored by sacrificing one or more passes. Trucks should preferably be loaded by not more than the nominal (modal) number plus one pass. The research has: • Identified and investigated attributes that affect the dispersion of truck payloads, bucket loads, bucket-cycle time, loading time and truck-cycle time. • The outcomes of the research indicate a need to correlate drilling and blasting quality control and truck payload dispersion. Further research can be expected to determine the interrelationship between accuracy of drilling and blasting attributes including accuracy of hole location and direction. • Preliminary investigations indicate a relationship between drill-and-blast attributes through blasting quality control to bucket design, dimensions and shape; also discharge characteristics that affect bucket cycle time that needs further research.

Failure mechanisms in large scale open pit slopes are more complex than could be considered through conventional slope design methods. Pit slope behaviour must be predicted accurately, because for very deep open pits, a small change of slope angle can have serious technical and economic consequences. Failure of hard rock slopes often involves both failure along naturally existing weakness planes and failure of intact rock. Without an advanced understanding of combined rock slope failure mechanisms, the validity of commonly applied methods of large scale slope analysis is questionable. The problem was investigated by means of a toolbox approach, in which a wide range of slope stability analysis methods were used and compared to address specific problems arising during slope design optimisation of the Cadia Hill Open Pit, NSW. In particular, numerical modelling is an advanced tool to obtain insight into potential failure mechanisms and to assist the slope design process. The distinct element method was employed to simulate complex rock slope failure, including fracture extension, progressive step-path failure and brittle failure propagation, which were previously often considered unimportant or too difficult to model. A new, failure-scale-dependent concept for the categorisation of slope failures with six categories ranging from 0 (stable) to 5 (overall slope failure) was suggested to assist risk-based slope design. Parametric slope modelling was conducted to determine the interrelationship between proposed categories and critical slope/discontinuity parameters. Initiation and progression of complex slope failure were simulated and described, which resulted in an advanced understanding of combined slope failure mechanisms and the important role of rock bridges in large scale slope stability. A graphical presentation of the suggested slope failure categories demonstrated their interrelationship to varied slope/discontinuity parameters. Although large scale slope analyses will always involve data-limited systems, this investigation shows that comprehensive, conceptual modelling of slope failure mechanisms can deliver a significantly improved insight into slope behaviour, so that associated slope failure risks can be judged with more confidence. The consideration of combined slope failure mechanisms in the analysis of large scale open pit slopes is essential if slope behaviour is to be realistically modelled.

Through the years, there has been a great deal of archaeological research focused on the earliest farming cultures of Europe (i.e. Early Neolithic). However, little effort has been expended to uncover the type and nature of daily activities performed within Early Neolithic dwellings, particularly in the Balkans. This thesis conducts a spatial analysis of the Early Neolithic pit house levels of the Foeni-Salaş site in southeast Romania, in the northern half of the Balkans, to determine the kinds and locations of activities that occurred in these pit houses. Characteristic Early Neolithic dwellings in the northern Balkans are pit houses. The data are analyzed using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology in an attempt to identify non-random patterns that will indicate how the pit house inhabitants used their space. Both visual and statistical (Nearest Neighbor) techniques are used to identify spatial patterns. Spreadsheet data are incorporated into the map database in order to compare and contrast the results from the two techniques of analysis. Map data provides precise artefact locations, while spreadsheet data yield more generalized quad centroid information. Unlike the mapped data, the spreadsheet data also included artefacts recovered in sieves. Utilizing both data types gave a more complexand fuller understanding of how space was used at Foeni-Salaş. The results show that different types of activity areas are present within each of the pit houses. Comparison of interior to exterior artifact distributions demonstrates that most activities take place within pit house. Some of the activities present include weaving, food preparation, butchering, hide processing, pottery making, ritual, and other activities related to the running of households. It was found that these activities are placed in specific locations relative to features within the pit house and the physical structure of the pit house itself. This research adds to the growing body of archaeological research that implements GIS to answer questions and solve problems related to the spatial dimension of human behaviour. / February 2008

The Udabno Project is an archaeological fieldwork in Eastern Georgia which includes three settlements from ca. 11th 10th century BC (Udabno I, II and III). The project aims to provide information about the settlement of this period of time. Extensive surveys including geomagnetic prospection took place before the excavations and these are all reveal proto-urban settlement structures. In this project, one of the most important investigations is the pit dwellings, which are located in the middle of the settlement. The primary goal of this thesis is to reveal the construction process of those pit dwelling, House D, at Iron Age Udabno III by studying the excavation reports in order to be able to understand Udabno within its chronological and geographical context as well as shed light on the societal structure.

The purpose of this study is to assess the dewatering requirements of planned open pit nickel mining at &Ccedil / aldag Site in Western Turkey. Dewatering is required for safe and efficient working conditions and pit wall stability. With this scope, a groundwater model of the study area is developed and used to predict the dewatering rate. The methodology mainly involves data collection, site hydrogeologic characterization and development of conceptual model, followed by construction and use of a groundwater model to predict the dewatering requirements of the mine site. The groundwater flow modeling is carried out using MODFLOW software and the dewatering simulations are carried out using MODFLOW Drain package. The drain cell configuration is determined by pit boundaries and invert elevations of drains corresponded to the bench elevations that will be achieved with respect to the mining schedule. In the transient model runs, monthly time steps were used. Using the outflow from in-pit drain cells, the v monthly dewatering rates are calculated. In order to assess the impacts of the hydraulic conductivity of the laterite on the pit inflow rates, simulations were carried out for different values of hydraulic conductivity of laterites. The predicted flow rate using the calibrated model is 107.54 L/s. A tenfold reduction in the hydraulic conductivity of laterite resulted in three fourths of decrease in the flow rate (24.42 L/s). Consequently, a wide range of flow rates for different hydraulic conductivity values of laterite was calculated. In order to confirm the hydraulic conductivity of laterites in the area, and to obtain a realistic dewatering rate, further pumping tests are needed.

Pit crater and pit crater chains associated to the volcano Arsia Mons on Mars have been mapped to analyse their spatial pattern and to conclude about their formation. For the mapping, high resolution satellite data gathered during the Mars Express mission were used. The spatial distribution of the pit craters was then compared with typical patterns of magmatic sheet intrusions within volcanoes as they are known from Earth. The results show that the pattern of the mapped pit craters and pit crater chains are in good agreement with these sheet intrusions and are therefore likely related to Martian sheet intrusions. / Kollapskratrar och kraterkedjor relaterade till vulkanen Arsia Mons på Mars har karterats för att analysera deras spatiala mönster och för att komma till slutsatser för deras tillblivelse. Högupplösta satellitbilder tagna av Mars Express-sonden har använts för karteringen. Fördelningen av de karterade kraterkedjorna jämfördes med typiska fördelningar av magmatiska gångbergarter från vulkaner på jorden. Resultaten visar att fördelningen av kollapskratrar och kraterkedjor överensstämmer enligt förväntningarna och påvisar en relation mellan kollapskratrar och magmatiska gångbergarter på Mars.