Der Aufgabenschwerpunkt dieser Arbeit bestand in der Untersuchung der Serum-Prolaktin- Werte von Patienten mit systemischem Lupus erythematodes (SLE) (n=60) und anderen Kollagenosen bzw. Vaskulitiden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, daß ein Teil der SLE-Patienten erhöhte PRL-Werte hat (33,3%). Bei den Patienten mit sonstigen Kollagenosen und Vaskulitiden lag dieser Anteil bei 11,1%. Es handelt sich dabei um eine (idiopathische) Hyperprolaktinämie mit meist nur geringfügigen Erhöhungen des Prolaktins. Von besonderem Interesse war die Frage nach der Existenz eines Zusammenhanges zwischen dem Serum-Prolaktin-Wert und der klinischen bzw. serologischen Krankheitsaktivität bei SLE- Patienten. Diesbezüglich gab es bisher zahlreiche Untersuchungen mit widersprüchlichen Ergebnissen. Als Ergebnis dieser Studie ließ sich ein statistisch signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen dem Serumprolaktin und sowohl dem ECLAM-Score als auch der Anti-dsDNA- und Anti-Cardiolipin (IgG)-Antikörperkonzentration der SLE-Patienten nachweisen. Diese Ergebnisse bestätigten sich bei Verlaufsuntersuchungen, bei denen die klinische Krankheitsaktivität, die Anti-dsDNA-Antikörper- und die Prolaktinkonzentration der SLE- Patienten korrelierten. Um der Frage der Bedeutung des Prolaktins für den Krankheitsverlauf des SLE auf den Grund zu gehen, wurden periphere mononukleäre Zellen (PBMC) der Patienten (n=11) mit PRL in vitro inkubiert und ihre Aktivität hinsichtlich der Produktion von Gesamt-IgG und Zytokinen untersucht. Eine Einflußnahme des Prolaktins auf die Zytokinproduktion konnte nicht beobachtet werden. Anders verhielt es sich mit der IgG-Produktion der SLE-PBMC. Diese ließ sich, im Gegensatz zu der normaler PBMC, durch Prolaktin in erhöhter (100ng/ml) und sogar in physiologischer (20ng/ml) Konzentration steigern. Dabei konnte eine Abhängigkeit von der Krankheitsaktivität der SLE-Patienten festgestellt werden. Das Ergebnis verdeutlicht, daß Prolaktin möglicherweise schon in einer physiologischen Konzentration aktivitätssteigernd auf SLE-PBMC wirkt. Bei Annahme der Übertragbarkeit dieser in vitro- Ergebnisse auf in vivo-Verhältnisse, läßt sich die Bedeutung der Höhe der Serum-Prolaktin- Konzentration für die Krankheitsaktivität der SLE-Patienten abschätzen. Gleichzeitig stellt sich die Frage nach dem therapeutischen Nutzen der medikamentösen Kontrolle des Serumprolaktins, insbesondere bei SLE-Patienten mit hoher Krankheitsaktivität. Neben der Frage, ob PRL Autoimmunprozesse unterhält, sollte aber auch interessieren, ob es sie möglicherweise sogar initiiert. Diesbezüglich gibt es unterschiedliche Vermutungen. Als Modell für die Untersuchung dieser Frage dient der Prolaktinompatient, dessen Immunsystem lange Zeit erhöhten PRL-Konzentrationen ausgesetzt ist. In dieser Studie wurden 39 Prolaktinompatienten auf das Vorhandensein von Autoantikörpern (ANA, Anti-dsDNA) im Serum und von klinischen Befunden im Sinne einer Autoimmunerkrankung untersucht. Dabei wurde ein erhöhtes Vorkommen von Antinukleären-Antikörpern (ANA) bei Prolaktinompatienten im Vergleich zu Gesunden festgestellt (59 vs. 18%). Allerdings hatte sich nur bei einer Patientin eine Autoimmun-Erkrankung (Sjögren-Syndrom und Hashimoto- Thyreoiditis) manifestiert. Es kann also festgestellt werden, daß Prolaktin allein anscheinend nicht in der Lage ist, die klinische Manifestation von Autoimmunerkrankungen herbeizuführen, obwohl es die Produktion von Autoantikörpern begünstigt. / Prolactin (PRL) is a peptide hormone with immunomodulatory properties. The current work addressed whether PRL is involved in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). PRL serum levels were determined in patients with SLE (52 female, 8 male) and healthy controls. 33.3% of the patients showed a mild hyperprolactinemia, whereas healthy controls had exclusively normal levels of PRL in their sera. There was a positive correlation of the SLE disease activity assessed by the ECLAM-score as well as the levels of anti-dsDNA- and anti-cardiolipin antibodies with the respective PRL serum levels. Furthermore, the influence of PRL on peripheral mononuclear cells (PBMC) was examined in vitro by incubation of these cells with PRL for 7 days. PRL (at concentrations of 20 and 100ng/ml) was shown to significantly enhance the IgG production in PBMC from patients with SLE (n=11, mean: 579.3?476.4ng/ml vs mean: 1084?601.3ng/ml, p

Um dos objetivos no tratamento de Diabetes mellitus é aumentar a função, proliferação e sobrevivência de células beta pancreáticas, pois o transplante de ilhotas pancreáticas é severamente limitado pela escassez de doadores de órgãos. Nós mostramos que prolactina recombinante humana (rhPRL) apresenta efeitos benéficos em células beta, inibindo a apoptose. Recentemente reportamos o aumento dos níveis de expressão da proteína antiapoptótica HSP27/25, regulada por rhPRL em ilhotas humanas. Nosso objetivo é explorar o papel de HSP27/25 na citoproteção induzida por prolactina em células beta. Métodos: Células MIN6 parentais e silenciadas para HSP25 foram privadas de soro por 24h e cultivadas na presença ou ausência de rhPRL (300ng/mL). Posteriormente foram tratadas na presença ou ausência de uma combinação de citocinas (TNF-&#945;, INF-&#947 e IL-1&#946;) por diferentes períodos de tempo. A apoptose foi avaliada usando-se análise por citometria de fluxo. Os níveis de expressão gênica de HSP27/25 e membros da família BCL-2, da expressão proteica de membros desta mesma família, além de Caspase-9, Smac-Diablo HSP27/25, HSTF1, pP38 e pSTAT1 foram analisados por Westen blot. Ainda, foram avaliadas a atividade de Caspase-8 e -3, por ensaios fluorimétricos. Após o tratamento com rhPRL e citocinas, a proporção de núcleos fragmentados aumentou em células silenciadas para HSP25 (p<0,05), quando comparadas com células controles. A inibição da atividade de Caspase-3 e -8, tanto quanto os níveis de expressão proteica de caspase- 9, por rhPRL e o aumento da razão de expressão Bcl-2/Bax e BclxL/Bax foram revertidos em células silenciadas (p<0,05). Além disso, a cinética dos níveis de expressão de HSP27/25 e HSTF1 foram estudadas em culturas de ilhotas pancreáticas humanas, mostrando que enquanto HSTF1 apresenta um aumento significativo (p<0,01) nos níveis de expressão proteica após 10min de tratamento com rhPRL, HSP27 alcançou seu nível máximo após 2h do tratamento hormonal. Adicionalmente, foi detectado um aumento significante (p<0,05) nos níveis de fosforilação de STAT1 e de p38, após 10min, atingindo o pico de expressão após 30min (p<0,01) do tratamento com rhPRL. Estes estudos demonstram o papel chave de HSP27/25 sobre os efeitos citoprotetores induzidos por rhPRL, desde que a ausência desta proteína aboliu completamente os efeitos benéficos induzidos por PRL sobre a morte de células beta. Ainda, nós fornecemos pela primeira vez, evidências da corregulação de HSP27 e HSTF1 induzidas por rhPRL em células humanas pancreáticas, que pode estar sendo mediada pela ativação de STAT1 e p38. Coletivamente, nossos resultados podem conduzir para a atenuação da morte de células beta por meio da regulação de uma via de proteção endógena, a qual é independente da modulação do sistema imunológico. / One of the goals in Diabetes mellitus treatment is to enhance pancreatic &#946;-cell function, proliferation and survival since transplantation of pancreatic islets is severely limited by shortage of organ donors. We have shown that recombinant human prolactin (rhPRL) inhibits beta-cell apoptosis. We have recently reported PRL-induced up-regulation of the anti-apoptotic HSP25/27 in human islets. Since the function of HSP25/27 in beta-cells has not been directly studied, we set out to explore the role of HSP25/27 in prolactin-induced beta-cell cytoprotection. Methods: Parental and HSP25 knocked-down Min6 cells were serumstarved for 24h and then cultured in the presence or in the absence of rhPRL (300ng/mL) for different time periods. Apoptosis was evaluated using flow cytometry analysis. Levels of Bcl-2 gene family members, caspase-9, Bcl-2, BclxL, Bax, Smac-Diablo, HSP27/25, HSTF1, pStat- 1,pP38 were studied by western blot. Caspase-3 and -8 activity, were evaluated by fluorimetric assays. Upon cytokines and rhPRL treatment, the proportion of fragmented nuclei was increased in HSP25 silenced cells (p<0.05) when compared to control cells. The inhibition of cytokine-induced capase-3 and -8 activity as well as Bcl-2/Bax and BclxL/Bax ratios and caspase-9 protein levels mediated by rhPRL in wild type cells was reverted in knocked-down cells (p<0.05). Moreover, the kinetics of HSP 25/27 and HSTF1 expression levels studied in primary cultures of human pancreatic islets showed that while HSTF1 presented a significant increase (p<0.01) in protein expression level after 10 min of rhPRL treatment, HSP27 reached its maximum expression level upon 2h of hormonal treatment. Additionally, a significant (p<0.05) increase in both P38 and STAT1 phosphorylation levels were detected after 10min of rhPRL treatment reaching the highest levels upon 30 min (p<0.001) of hormonal treatment. Therefore, we demonstrated a key role for HSP25/27 in rhPRL-induced cytoprotective effects, since the lack of this protein completely abolished the beneficial effects induced by PRL on beta-cell death. Moreover, we provided for the first time, evidence for the co-regulation of HSP27 and HSTF1 induced by rhPRL in human pancreatic cells which could be mediated by activated STAT1 and P38. Collectively, our results could lead to the mitigation of beta-cell death through the up-regulation of an endogenous protective pathway which is independent on the modulation of the immune system.

Na gravidez, o aumento da resistência à insulina é compensado por alterações morfo-funcionais na ilhota pancreática, como o aumento da proliferação e da secreção de insulina. Após o parto ocorre retorno do pâncreas às condições basais e aumento simultâneo da sensibilidade periférica à insulina. Neste trabalho estudamos os mecanismos moleculares responsáveis pelo remodelamento da ilhota no período perinatal. Os resultados mostram que a fosforilação em serina do STAT3 regula a expressão de SERCA2 e assim, modula a primeira fase da secreção de insulina. A fosforilação do STAT3 é dependente da ativação da ERK1/2. No início da lactação, ocorre redução da fosforilação das ERK1/2 devido ao aumento da expressão da fosfatase MKP1. A ação dos glicocorticóides é essencial para este fenômeno, e depende da expressão diferencial de 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD1 e 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD2. O aumento da sensibilidade periférica à insulina ocorre especificamente em músculos oxidativos no início da lactação, e depende do aumento da expressão de Glut4, IR, da via IRS2-PI3K-AKT e da diminuição da PTP1B. / During pregnancy, the increase in insulin resistance is compensated by morfofunctional adaptations of the pancreatic islets, as seen by an increase in cell proliferation and insulin secretion. After delivery, the endocrine pancreas returns to basal conditions, simultaneously to an increase in peripheral insulin sensitivity. In this work we studied the molecular mechanisms involved in islets remodeling during the peripartum period. Our results show that STAT3 serine phosphorylation regulates SERCA2 expression, thus modulating first phase of insulin secretion. STAT3 serine phosphorylation is dependent on ERK1/2 activation. At the beginning of lactation, ERK1/2 phosphorylation is downregulated by the overexpression of the phosphatase MKP1. The action of glucocorticoids is essential in this mechanism, which depends on the differential expression of 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD1 and 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD2. The increase in peripheral insulin sensitivity occurs specifically on oxidative skeletal muscles, which involves an increase in Glut4 and IR expression, IRS2-PI3K-AKT pathway, and a decrease in PTP1B.

O transplante de ilhotas pancreáticas constitui uma alternativa atraente para o tratamento de diabetes tipo 1 (DM1), contudo, é limitado devido à escassez de doadores de órgãos. O papel da prolactina humana recombinante (rhPRL), que apresenta efeitos benéficos em células-beta, e seu mecanismo de ação foram investigados neste estudo. O número de células apoptóticas diminui significativamente na presença de rhPRL. Essa citoproteção envolveu diminuição da razão BCL2/BAX e inibição de caspase-8, -9 e -3. Este estudo revelou, pela primeira vez, evidência direta do efeito protetor de lactogênios contra apoptose de células-beta humanas. Levando em consideração a relação conhecida entre citocinas e DM1 e observações recentes sugerindo o papel da autofagia no desenvolvimento e prevenção do DM1, foi investigada a conexão entre citocinas (IL-1&#946;, TNF&#945; e IFN-&#947;) e autofagia em células-beta. O co-tratamento com citocinas e rapamicina, um indutor de autofagia via inibição de mTOR, não aumentou os níveis de apoptose em células INS-1E. Contudo, exposição a citocinas levou ao aumento nos níveis de autofagossomos e na relação LC3-II/LC3-I, do mesmo modo que o tratamento com rapamicina. O tratamento com citocinas também levou à diminuição dos níveis de mTOR e 4E-BP1 fosforilados. Foi demonstrada aqui, pela primeira vez, uma relação direta entre o tratamento com citocinas e a indução de autofagia em células-beta. Recentemente, surgiram novas evidências mostrando ligação entre a morte de células-beta induzida por citocinas e indução de estresse de retículo endoplasmático. Em nosso modelo, foram observados níveis diminuídos de p-mTOR e aumento da formação de autofagossomos após o tratamento com indutores de estresse de retículo. Este estudo reforça também, resultados prévios sobre a hipótese da função de indutores de estresse de retículo em promover a autofagia. Além disso, o tratamento com rhPRL aumentou os níveis de p-mTOR e levou à diminuição na formação de autofagossomos após exposição a citocinas em células-beta. Estes resultados são relevantes para a caracterização mais aprofundada das funções dos lactogênios nessas células. Sabendo-se da necessidade de células-beta humanas para estudos detalhados em células-beta, nosso grupo gerou linhagens celulares derivadas de insulinomas humanos que secretam hormônios e expressam marcadores com o mesmo padrão de seu tecido original. Estas linhagens foram caracterizadas comparando-as com culturas primárias de células-beta através de eletroforese bidimensional acoplada a espectrometria de massa. Cerca de 1.800 spots foram detectados, sendo que menos de 1% apresentou expressão diferencial. As proteínas superexpressas em ilhotas, como Caldesmon, estão envolvidas em organização do citoesqueleto, influenciando a secreção hormonal. Contrariamente, quase todas as proteínas superexpressas nas células de insulinoma, como MAGE-A2, foram descritas aqui pela primeira vez, podendo estar relacionadas à sobrevivência celular e resistência à quimioterapia. Estes resultados mostram, pela primeira vez, mudanças na expressão de proteínas relacionadas ao fenótipo alterado dos insulinomas, direcionando a pesquisa ao estabelecimento de células-beta humanas bioengenheiradas e ao desenvolvimento de novas estratégias terapêuticas para insulinomas. Coletivamente, os dados obtidos neste estudo estendem o conhecimento molecular envolvido na citoproteção induzida por rhPRL e transformação maligna de células-beta pancreáticas, contribuindo para futuras aplicações na compreensão e no tratamento do DM1 / Transplantation of pancreatic islets constitutes an alternative for type 1 diabetes (DM1); however, it is limited by the shortage of organ donors. Here, we investigated the role of recombinant human prolactin (rhPRL), shown to have beneficial effects in beta-cells, and its mechanisms of action. Apoptotic beta-cells were decreased in the presence of rhPRL, with cytoprotection involving an increase of BCL2/BAX ratio and inhibition of caspase-8, -9 and -3. This study provides new direct evidence for a protective effect of lactogens in human beta-cell apoptosis. Taking into account the known relationship between cytokines and DM1 and recent observations suggesting a role for autophagy in the development and prevention of DM1, we investigated the connection between cytokines (IL-1&#946;, TNF-&#945; and IFN-&#947;) and autophagy in beta-cells. Co-treatment with cytokines and rapamycin, an inducer of autophagy through inhibition of mTOR, did not increase the apoptosis levels in INS-1E cells. However, exposure to cytokines increased the levels of autophagosome formation and LC3-II/LC3-I ratio. Treatment with cytokines also led to decreased levels of phosphorylated mTOR and 4E-BP1. We demonstrated for the first time, a direct relationship between cytokines treatment and induction of autophagy in beta-cells. Lately, new evidence point to a connection between cytokine-induced beta-cell death and endoplasmic reticulum stress. In our model, we observed that decreased levels of p-mTOR and increased autophagosome formation also ensued after treatment with endoplasmic reticulum stressors. This study also supports the previous hypothesis on the function of ER stressors in inducing autophagy. Furthermore, rhPRL treatment increased the levels of p-mTOR and decreased autophagosome formation after exposure to cytokines in beta-cells. These findings are also relevant for further characterization of lactogens functions in these cells. Considering the demand for human cells for further beta-cells studies, our group generated cell lines derived from human insulinomas which secrete hormones and express markers with the same pattern displayed by their original tissue. We set out to further characterize these lineages by comparing them to primary beta-cells using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled to mass spectrometry. An average of 1,800 spots was detected with less than 1% exhibiting differential expression. Proteins upregulated in islets, such as Caldesmon, are involved in cytoskeletal organization thus influencing hormone secretion. In contrast, almost all proteins upregulated in insulinoma cells, such as MAGE-A2, first described here, could be related to cell survival and resistance to chemotherapy. Our results provide, for the first time, a molecular snapshot of the changes in expression of proteins correlated with the altered phenotype of insulinomas, prompting research towards the establishment of bioengineered human beta-cells, and the development of new therapeutic strategies for insulinomas. Collectively, the data obtained in this study extend the molecular knowledge involved in rhPRL-induced cytoprotection and malignant transformation of pancreatic beta-cells, contributing to future applications for understanding and treatment of DM1

A prolactina humana (hPRL) é um hormônio sintetizado pela hipófise com inúmeras funções tais como: lactação, reprodução e regulação osmótica. Este hormônio é frequentemente dosado em casos de problemas na lactação, infertilidade, além de estudos que elucidam sua ligação em alguns tipos de câncer (mama, próstata e útero). A hPRL é encontrada na forma não glicosilada (NG-hPRL) (23 kDa) e glicosilada (G-hPRL) (25 kDa), sendo a isoforma glicosilada um modelo ideal de análise de perfil de N-glicanos, já que possui um único sítio de glicosilação localizado na Asparagina 31. A glicosilação está relacionada diretamente à solubilidade, à estabilidade, ao enovelamento, à meia-vida e atividade biológica in vivo. As células de ovário de hamster chinês (CHO) e as células embrionárias de rim humano (HEK293) são os hospedeiros mais utilizados para expressão de proteínas recombinantes, já que podem ser cultivadas em altas densidades e por possuírem similaridade nas modificações pós-traducionais. O objetivo foi expressar, purificar e realizar uma caracterização físico-química e biológica da hPRL glicosilada de células HEK293, incluindo análise da estrutura de carboidratos. Para tanto, foi realizada uma transfecção em células HEK293T (aderidas) com o vetor pcDNA 3.4-TOPO. Foi obtida uma expressão de 21,26 &plusmn; 8,3 &mu;g/mL de hPRL no meio condicionado sem soro. A hPRL foi purificada por cromatografia de afinidade a metais imobilizados (IMAC), eluindo 92% da hPRL em uma única fração que, analisada por HPSEC, apresentou pureza de 97%. O perfil de N-glicanos da amostra apresentou seis espécies, todas com terminação em ácido-siálico, do tipo complexo, sendo bi, tri e tetra-antenárias, com relativa predominância da espécie N2G2S1 (29,4%). A bioatividade in vitro da G-hPRL HEK293 demonstrou ser &cong; 16 vezes menor que a G-hPRL produzida em células CHO. / Human prolactin (hPRL) is a hormone synthesized by the pituitary gland with innumerable functions such as lactation, reproduction and osmotic regulation. This hormone is often determined in cases of lactation problems, infertility, and studies that elucidate its connection in some types of cancer (breast, prostate and uterus). The hPRL is found in the non-glycosylated (NG-hPRL) (23 kDa) and glycosylated (G-hPRL) (25 kDa) form, being the glycosylated isoform an ideal model for N-glycan profile analysis, since it has a single glycosylation site located in Asparagine 31. Glycosylation is directly related to solubility, stability, folding, half-life and biological activity in vivo. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells are the most widely used hosts for expression of recombinant proteins, since they can be grown at high densities and have similarity in post-translational modifications. The objective of this work was to express, purify and perform a physicochemical and biological characterization of the glycosylated hPRL from HEK293 cells, including analysis of the carbohydrate structure. For this purpose, a transfection was performed on HEK293T (adhered) cells with the 3.4-TOPO pcDNA vector. Expression of 21.26 &plusmn; 8.3 &mu;g/mL hPRL in the serum free conditioned medium was obtained. The hPRL was purified by immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC), eluting 92% of the hPRL in a single fraction which analyzed by HPSEC, showed 97% purity. The N-glycans profile of the sample showed six species, all with sialic acid termination, complex type, being bi, tri and tetra antennary, with a relative predominance of N2G2S1 (29.4%). In vitro bioactivity of G-hPRL HEK293 demonstrated to be &cong; 16-fold lower than G-hPRL produced in CHO cells.

Object of work. 1. Investigation of prolactin gene polymorphism and distribution of different alleles at Lithuanian cattle breeds (Lithuanian Red, Lithuanian Light Grey, Lithuanian White Backed, Lithuanian Black and White). 2 Investigation of prolactin (PRL) gene influence to milk production. Tasks of work. 1. Introduce cattle prolactin gene research methodology at K. Janušauskas Laboratory of Animal Genetics, LVA. 2. Investigate prolactin gene polymorphism at LR, LBW, LWB, LLG cattle breeds by molecular PCR-RFLP method. 3. Determine frequency of prolactin gene alleles and genotypes at LR, LBW, LWB, LLG cattle breeds. 4. Compose data base for dairy production of investigative cattle population. 5. Investigate influence of prolactin gene to milk yield, fat and proteins. Research methodology. 1. DNA extraction from: blood and hair roots. 2. PCR to amplify PRL gene. 3. RFLP method-PRL – enzyme RsaI. 3. Electrophoresis in agarose gel. 4. Staining with Etidium bromide. 5. Genotyping. Results. The following DNA restriction fragments were obtained for the PRL-RsaI polymorphism: 82 and 74 bp for the BB genotype, 156, 82 and 74 bp for the AB and 156 bp for the AA genotype. The AA genotype was found most frequent in all breeds (0.06 – 0.94), followed by the AB (0.06 – 0.37). The least frequent was the BB genotype (0.00 – 0.08). Prolactin gene A allele was found most frequent (0.97) at Lithuanian Light Grey, the least frequent (0.77) - at Lithuanian red cattle breed. Conclusions... [to full text]

Introdução: O aumento do nível sérico de prolactina tem sido associado com desfechos ginecológicos e obstétricos desfavoráveis, entre eles a endometriose e aborto recorrente. Sabendo que o polimorfismo do receptor da dopamina D2 (DRD2) está associado com hiperprolactinemia, realizamos este estudo para verificar sua associação com endometriose e com abortamento de repetição. Objetivos: Verificar a prevalência dos polimorfismos de receptores de dopamina D2 em pacientes com endometriose peritoneal e em pacientes com abortamento de repetição comparando com mulheres saudáveis. Métodos: Dois estudos de caso-controle foram realizados: um estudo com 107 mulheres com idade entre 18 e 35 anos que foram atendidas no Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre devido à infertilidade causada pela endometriose peritoneal comparada com mulheres saudáveis. O outro estudo foi realizado com um total de 54 mulheres com idade entre 18 e 35 anos que tinham história de aborto de repetição comparada a mulheres férteis sem história de aborto. Foi realizada a extração de DNA de sangue periférico, seguido de reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) e o sequenciamento dos dois polimorfismos no exon 7 do gene receptor de dopamina D2 (DRD2). O polimorfismo 1 ocorre no nucleotídeo 3420 (Citosina para Timina, 313 Histidina), e o polimorfismo 2 ocorre no nucleotídeo 3438 (Citosina para Timina, 319 Prolina). Resultados: A frequência do polimorfismo DRD2 está aumentada em pacientes com endometriose peritoneal moderada/grave. Análise dos genótipos DRD2 demonstra uma razão de chance de 2,98 (1,47 - 6,04; intervalo de confiança (IC) 95%) para o polimorfismo 2 na endometriose peritoneal moderada/grave. O mesmo polimorfismo DRD2 tem uma frequência alélica aumentada nas pacientes com abortamento de repetição com uma razão de chance de 2,37 (1,05 - 5,36; IC 95%). Conclusão: Nossos resultados revelam um excesso do polimorfismo DRD2 em mulheres com endometriose peritoneal moderada-grave e em pacientes com abortamento de repetição. Podemos especular que a presença de polimorfismo 2 pode causar um defeito no mecanismo de pós-sinalização, resultando num ligeiro aumento dos níveis de prolactina sérica. Assim, devido ao possível potencial angiogênico, a prolactina pode desempenhar um papel importante na implantação dos focos de endometriose bem como dificuldades na implantação embrionária com consequente aborto. / Introduction: The increase of serum prolactin levels has been associated with unfavourable gynaecological and obstetrical outcomes, including endometriosis and recurrent abortion. Knowing that the polymorphism of the dopamine D2 receptor is associated with hyperprolactinaemia, we conducted this study to verify its association with endometriosis and recurrent miscarriage. Objective: To verify the prevalence of the polymorphism of the D2 dopamine receptor in patients with peritoneal endometriosis and recurrent abortion compared to healthy women. Methods: Two case-control studies were conducted of women who were enrolled at the Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre: 1) a study with 107 patients with infertility secondary to peritoneal endometriosis compared with healthy women and 2) a second study with 54 women with recurrent miscarriage compared with fertile women with no history of abortion. All of the women were aged between 18 and 35 years. We performed DNA extraction from peripheral blood followed by a polymerase chain reaction to confirm the single-strand polymorphisms and to sequence two polymorphisms in exon 7 of the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) gene. Polymorphism 1 occurred in nucleotide 3420 (cytosine to thymine, 313 histidine), and polymorphism 2 occurred in nucleotide 3438 (cytosine to thymine, 319 proline). Results: The frequency of the DRD2 polymorphism 2 was increased in the subjects with peritoneal moderate/severe endometriosis. An analysis of the DRD2 genotypes demonstrated an odds ratio of 2.98 (1.47 - 6.04, 95% confidence interval (CI)) for polymorphism 2 in peritoneal moderate/severe endometriosis. This same polymorphism was increased in the subjects with recurrent miscarriage with an odds ratio of 2.37 (1.05 – 5.36, 95% CI). Conclusions: Our results revealed an excess of the DRD2 polymorphism 2 in exon 7 in women with peritoneal moderate/severe endometriosis and women with recurrent miscarriage. We could speculate that the presence of the polymorphism 2 causes a defect in a post-receptor signalling mechanism, which results in a mild increase in the serum prolactin levels. Thus, the potential angiogenic action of prolactin may play a role in implanting ectopic endometriosis tissue as well as in embryo implantation difficulties with subsequent abortions.

The corpus luteum (CL) is a transient endocrine structure formed from the remnants of an ovulated follicle with the primary purpose of producing progesterone (P4), a hormone vital for the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. The precise regulation of CL function is essential for normal reproductive cycles and maintenance of early pregnancy. In mammals, the pituitary hormones prolactin (PRL) and luteinizing hormone (LH) function as luteotrophic factors during pregnancy, and these two hormones form a functional luteotrophic complex to control CL function in rodents. The mechanistic underpinnings of the luteotrophic actions of PRL and LH, as well as the interplay between the two hormones are poorly understood, and has been the focus of the current investigation. There are several limitations involved in studying luteal function under cell culture conditions. Hence, in vivo animal models employing dopaminergic receptor agonist, 2-Bromo-α-Ergocryptine Mesylate (CB-154; inhibits pituitary PRL secretion) and GnRH receptor antagonist, cetrorelix (CET; inhibits pituitary LH secretion) have been standardized for purposes of examining the roles of PRL and LH in the regulation of CL structure and function in rats. Administration of CB-154 or CET to pregnant rats caused inhibition of CL function and concomitant loss of conceptuses. The CB-154 treatment induced loss of implants was determined to be the result of inhibition of luteal function, rather than the non-specific effects of CB-154 or requirement of PRL for uterine maintenance of implants. To understand how PRL and LH regulate luteal function, targets of PRL and LH in the rat CL needs to be established; however, this has not been well defined by previous studies. The present study observed that CB-154 induced inhibition of luteal function was gradual in its onset; hence, transcriptional changes of genes involved in steroid genesis were examined. mRNA expression of genes involved in P4 production were found to be down regulated, while 20α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenate (20α-HSD), a P4 catabolizing enzyme was unregulated by CB-154 treatment. CET treatment also had a similar effect on mRNA expression of steroidogenic genes. Interestingly, mRNA expression of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), a key regulator of steroid genesis was not regulated by CB-154 or CET treatment. The luteolytic factor PGF2α also inhibited CL function in pregnant rats but did not down regulate mRNA expression of StAR. However, examination of phospho-StAR (Ser-195), the activated form of StAR, during CET and PGF2α-induced luteolysis suggested that regulation of StAR in the CL of pregnant rats might primarily be at the level of phosphorylation. PRL has been implicated in maintaining luteal expression of LH/choriogonadotrophin receptor (LH/CGR), the cognate receptor for LH. Hence, the luteotrophic actions of PRL may be indirect, by way of regulating LH signalling. Hence, the importance of the LH/CGR pathway and its regulation were examined. LH/CGR mRNA expression was found to correlate with CL function, with CET and CB-154 treatments resulting in down regulation of LH/CGR mRNA expression. Further, CB-154 treatment down regulated LH/CGR pre-mRNA levels, suggesting a role for PRL in the regulation of LH/CGR transcription. mRNA expression of LRH-1, a constitutively active transcription factor previously reported to be important in CL function was down regulated by both CB-154 and CET treatments and hence correlated with LH/CGR mRNA expression. Further, luciferase assays in HeLA cells transiently expressing LRH-1 suggests its involvement in activating the LH/CGR promoter. Estrogen receptor (ER)-α and ER-β also appear to correlate with LH/CGR expression and may play a role along with LRH-1 in the regulation of LH/CGR mRNA expression in the CL of pregnant rats. To examine mechanisms by which PRL may regulate its downstream targets, pathways employed by PRL in the CL of pregnant rats were analysed. The Akt pathway including downstream targets were down regulated by CB-154 treatment. The pathway was found to be regulated at the level of Akt1 mRNA expression. Hence, actions of PRL may regulate the survival of CL. This study has also made observations of LH playing a similar role in survival of the CL. The results of these studies taken together, shed light on the regulation of CL structure and function by PRL and LH, and provide molecular evidence for the two hormones having similar downstream targets and functioning as a luteotrophic complex in pregnant rats, which could only mean a robust interaction between the signalling pathways employed by the two hormones.

Na gravidez, o aumento da resistência à insulina é compensado por alterações morfo-funcionais na ilhota pancreática, como o aumento da proliferação e da secreção de insulina. Após o parto ocorre retorno do pâncreas às condições basais e aumento simultâneo da sensibilidade periférica à insulina. Neste trabalho estudamos os mecanismos moleculares responsáveis pelo remodelamento da ilhota no período perinatal. Os resultados mostram que a fosforilação em serina do STAT3 regula a expressão de SERCA2 e assim, modula a primeira fase da secreção de insulina. A fosforilação do STAT3 é dependente da ativação da ERK1/2. No início da lactação, ocorre redução da fosforilação das ERK1/2 devido ao aumento da expressão da fosfatase MKP1. A ação dos glicocorticóides é essencial para este fenômeno, e depende da expressão diferencial de 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD1 e 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD2. O aumento da sensibilidade periférica à insulina ocorre especificamente em músculos oxidativos no início da lactação, e depende do aumento da expressão de Glut4, IR, da via IRS2-PI3K-AKT e da diminuição da PTP1B. / During pregnancy, the increase in insulin resistance is compensated by morfofunctional adaptations of the pancreatic islets, as seen by an increase in cell proliferation and insulin secretion. After delivery, the endocrine pancreas returns to basal conditions, simultaneously to an increase in peripheral insulin sensitivity. In this work we studied the molecular mechanisms involved in islets remodeling during the peripartum period. Our results show that STAT3 serine phosphorylation regulates SERCA2 expression, thus modulating first phase of insulin secretion. STAT3 serine phosphorylation is dependent on ERK1/2 activation. At the beginning of lactation, ERK1/2 phosphorylation is downregulated by the overexpression of the phosphatase MKP1. The action of glucocorticoids is essential in this mechanism, which depends on the differential expression of 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD1 and 11<font face=\"symbol\">b-HSD2. The increase in peripheral insulin sensitivity occurs specifically on oxidative skeletal muscles, which involves an increase in Glut4 and IR expression, IRS2-PI3K-AKT pathway, and a decrease in PTP1B.

Introdução: O aumento do nível sérico de prolactina tem sido associado com desfechos ginecológicos e obstétricos desfavoráveis, entre eles a endometriose e aborto recorrente. Sabendo que o polimorfismo do receptor da dopamina D2 (DRD2) está associado com hiperprolactinemia, realizamos este estudo para verificar sua associação com endometriose e com abortamento de repetição. Objetivos: Verificar a prevalência dos polimorfismos de receptores de dopamina D2 em pacientes com endometriose peritoneal e em pacientes com abortamento de repetição comparando com mulheres saudáveis. Métodos: Dois estudos de caso-controle foram realizados: um estudo com 107 mulheres com idade entre 18 e 35 anos que foram atendidas no Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre devido à infertilidade causada pela endometriose peritoneal comparada com mulheres saudáveis. O outro estudo foi realizado com um total de 54 mulheres com idade entre 18 e 35 anos que tinham história de aborto de repetição comparada a mulheres férteis sem história de aborto. Foi realizada a extração de DNA de sangue periférico, seguido de reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) e o sequenciamento dos dois polimorfismos no exon 7 do gene receptor de dopamina D2 (DRD2). O polimorfismo 1 ocorre no nucleotídeo 3420 (Citosina para Timina, 313 Histidina), e o polimorfismo 2 ocorre no nucleotídeo 3438 (Citosina para Timina, 319 Prolina). Resultados: A frequência do polimorfismo DRD2 está aumentada em pacientes com endometriose peritoneal moderada/grave. Análise dos genótipos DRD2 demonstra uma razão de chance de 2,98 (1,47 - 6,04; intervalo de confiança (IC) 95%) para o polimorfismo 2 na endometriose peritoneal moderada/grave. O mesmo polimorfismo DRD2 tem uma frequência alélica aumentada nas pacientes com abortamento de repetição com uma razão de chance de 2,37 (1,05 - 5,36; IC 95%). Conclusão: Nossos resultados revelam um excesso do polimorfismo DRD2 em mulheres com endometriose peritoneal moderada-grave e em pacientes com abortamento de repetição. Podemos especular que a presença de polimorfismo 2 pode causar um defeito no mecanismo de pós-sinalização, resultando num ligeiro aumento dos níveis de prolactina sérica. Assim, devido ao possível potencial angiogênico, a prolactina pode desempenhar um papel importante na implantação dos focos de endometriose bem como dificuldades na implantação embrionária com consequente aborto. / Introduction: The increase of serum prolactin levels has been associated with unfavourable gynaecological and obstetrical outcomes, including endometriosis and recurrent abortion. Knowing that the polymorphism of the dopamine D2 receptor is associated with hyperprolactinaemia, we conducted this study to verify its association with endometriosis and recurrent miscarriage. Objective: To verify the prevalence of the polymorphism of the D2 dopamine receptor in patients with peritoneal endometriosis and recurrent abortion compared to healthy women. Methods: Two case-control studies were conducted of women who were enrolled at the Hospital de Clinicas de Porto Alegre: 1) a study with 107 patients with infertility secondary to peritoneal endometriosis compared with healthy women and 2) a second study with 54 women with recurrent miscarriage compared with fertile women with no history of abortion. All of the women were aged between 18 and 35 years. We performed DNA extraction from peripheral blood followed by a polymerase chain reaction to confirm the single-strand polymorphisms and to sequence two polymorphisms in exon 7 of the dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) gene. Polymorphism 1 occurred in nucleotide 3420 (cytosine to thymine, 313 histidine), and polymorphism 2 occurred in nucleotide 3438 (cytosine to thymine, 319 proline). Results: The frequency of the DRD2 polymorphism 2 was increased in the subjects with peritoneal moderate/severe endometriosis. An analysis of the DRD2 genotypes demonstrated an odds ratio of 2.98 (1.47 - 6.04, 95% confidence interval (CI)) for polymorphism 2 in peritoneal moderate/severe endometriosis. This same polymorphism was increased in the subjects with recurrent miscarriage with an odds ratio of 2.37 (1.05 – 5.36, 95% CI). Conclusions: Our results revealed an excess of the DRD2 polymorphism 2 in exon 7 in women with peritoneal moderate/severe endometriosis and women with recurrent miscarriage. We could speculate that the presence of the polymorphism 2 causes a defect in a post-receptor signalling mechanism, which results in a mild increase in the serum prolactin levels. Thus, the potential angiogenic action of prolactin may play a role in implanting ectopic endometriosis tissue as well as in embryo implantation difficulties with subsequent abortions.