Summary: Maniototo, one of the fourteen counties of Otago, gained its name from the Maniototo Plain which makes up the greater part of the County. Mr W.H. Sherwood Roberts believes that the spelling of Manioto is not correct. "Toto" means blood, but the dictionaries do not give "manio". Instead "mania" means plain and the name should therefore be spelt Mania-o-toto, Plain of Blood, or simply Maniatoto. One old Maori told His Honour Mr. Justice Chapman that Maniatoto was the name of the Serpentine valley and that the plain was O Tu Rehua. When the name of Rough Ridge railway station was changed in 1908 to Oturehua, the explanation given was that a battle had been fought there in some distant period, the name of the victorious greenstone club Oturehua. The name, however, may mean the last resting place of Rehua, one of the most powerful of ancient Maori deities. On being questioned in 1890 by Mr. McPherson, M.P., Maori members of Parliament said that Oturehua is a very suitable substitution for Rough Ridge, for it means, in Old Maori, [sic]" a noble rugged eminence, worthy of being the standing place from which the commands of the great god Rehua might be given". It would appear that this poetic explanation must be the accepted one. Similarly the legend of the battle of ancient times must be the origin of the name Maniatoto, or Maniototo. Both spellings occur in official and unofficial reports from earlist times until 1877, when the county was instituted and the spelling fixed.

Settler colonisation produced particular colonial subjects: indigene and settler. The specificity of the relationship between these subjects lies in the act of settlement; an act of colonial violence by which the settler physically and symbolically displaces the indigene, but never totally. While indigenes may be physically displaced from their territories, they continue to occupy a marginal location within the settler nation-state. Symbolically, as settlers set out to distinguish themselves from the metropolitan 'motherlands', indigenous cultures become a rich, 'native' source of cultural authenticity to ground settler nationalisms. The result is a complex of conflictual and ambivalent relations between settler and indigene.This thesis investigates the ongoing impact of this colonial relation on the contemporary identities and relations of Maori (indigene) and Pakeha (settlers) in Aotearoa New Zealand. It centres on the operation of discursive strategies used by both Maori and Pakeha in constructing their identities and the relationship between them. I analyse 'found' texts - non-fiction books, media and academic texts - to identify discourse 'at work', as New Zealanders make and reflect on their identity claims. This investigation has two aims. Firstly, I map the terrain of discursive strategies that bear the traces of colonial domination and resistance. Secondly, I seek to explore the possibilities for replacing colonial relations with non-dominating forms of relationship between Maori and Pakeha.The thesis is in two parts. Part I focuses on theories of identity, centring on essentialism and hybridity. I argue that both modes of theorising bear the traces of colonial relations and neither offers the means to 'escape' colonial relations. Part II focuses on theories of intersubjectivity, bringing relationality to the fore. I argue that epistemological relations (including identity relations) always involve a degree of violence and exclusion and that, consequently, these necessary relations must be held in tension with an awareness of the ethical dimension of intersubjective engagement. Utilising the ethics of Emmanuel Lévinas, I argue that a combination of an ethical orientation towards the other and a 'disappointed' orientation towards politics and epistemology, offers the means to developing non-dominating relations with the cultural other.

This thesis asks two central questions. First, what is the range of racialised discourses that constitute the subjectivities of some Pakeha ('white'/European) women? Second, can an examination of racialised discourses be useful for present social justice and antiracist pedagogy? The research examines and analyses a range of discourses of Whiteness that contribute to the constitution of contemporary Pakeha women as racialised subjects. Central to the thesis is an analysis of dominant discourses and the contemporary challenges that analyses of racism and aspects of identification present in Aotearoa/New Zealand. The study is qualitative and draws on insights from discourse analysis theory, critical Whiteness theory and feminist approaches to theories on racism and 'white' supremacy. The analysis is located in the historicised context of contemporary Aotearoa/New Zealand where a Treaty, Te Tiriti O Waitangi, which was signed by some hapu, the tangata whenua of Aotearoa, and representatives of the British Crown in 1840, underpins current socio-cultural politics of biculturalism. The thesis argues/contends that racialised discourses, in particular various discourses of Whiteness are available to contemporary Pakeha women. The analysis is grounded in both a preliminary focus group and individual interviews of 28 Pakeha women ranging in age from 24 to 86 years, the majority of whom were aged between 40 and 55 years. With few exceptions, participants revealed that they were constituted within discourses of Whiteness through their communication choices and discursive strategies in the interviews in two distinct ways: firstly in their perceptions expressed in their narratives and recollections, and secondly in the discursive forms used in participants' interactions during the focus group and interviews. These 28 women, some of whom had participated in antiracist education such as Treaty of Waitangi workshops, utilised discourses that exposed the pervasiveness and significance of racialised discourses as they attempted express how they learned to be 'white'. Participants maintained and reproduced discourses of Whiteness that had gendered and some class influences contained in their perceptions, talk and significantly in their silences. The analysis shows how remnants of essentialist ideologies of 'race' based in the nineteenth century imperialism are constantly reworked and are seemingly invisible to those constituted within these racialised discourses, apparently giving these outdated representations no chance to fade away. Based on the analysis, critical pedagogies of Whiteness in education that incorporate an epistemic approach are suggested, which have the potential to facilitate Pakeha women's ability to conceptualise their racialised discursive location. As an outcome of this understanding, the thesis maintains that Pakeha will have the capability to strategically reconceptualise their discursive constitution in order to address the complex forms of identity, understanding of difference and representation. Furthermore, these reconceptualisations have the potential to reveal the central relationship between dominant discursive formulations and social norms and structures, a vital constituent in contemporary social justice education.

Exploring the leadership of New Zealand’s diverse cultural groups is of great importance in providing effective leadership. New Zealand’s population is diverse and rapidly changing (Statistics New Zealand, 2004b), resulting in leader-follower relationships increasingly being enacted in the cross-cultural context. As research suggests, cultural variations of leadership exist (Brodbeck et al., 2000; House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004), and inappropriate leadership could stifle the leadership process (Lord & Maher, 1993), it may be especially important to recognise cultural difference in leadership. Well-respected leadership theorists suggest that leadership behaviour is both culturally similar and different (Brodbeck et al., 2000; House et al., 2004), with distinct prototypes of leadership existing in each culture. Followers will only be influenced by leaders’ behaviour which they recognise from that prototype (Lord & Maher, 1993). To be effective, leaders’ behaviour must match followers’ culturally contingent leadership expectation (Popper & Druyan, 2001). New Zealand research supports this theory, confirming the existence of culturally unique leadership behaviour domestically (Ah Chong & Thomas, 1997; Love, 1991a). If the leadership expectations of New Zealand’s diverse cultural groups are not recognised, the result will be ineffective leadership for significant groups. This study investigates perceptions of outstanding Maori and Pakeha leaders by culturally similar followers. In doing so, it examines the unique Maori and Pakeha leadership prototypes, exploring their similarities and differences. In addition, it considers ways in which this course of research could impact on effective leadership in New Zealand. A multi-method approach was taken by this study in exploring perceived Maori and Pakeha leadership. The GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) survey was employed as this study’s quantitative component. The GLOBE is currently cross-cultural leadership’s fore-running research programme, investigating culture’s impact on leadership processes in 62 cultures, with the aim of developing a truly cross-cultural leadership theory. Close iwi consultation with Te Atiawa and Maori academics was employed as this study’s qualitative component. This study’s findings suggest similarities and differences in how Maori and Pakeha followers perceived the outstanding leadership behaviour of culturally similar leaders. Broadly, they suggest that outstanding Maori leaders were perceived as exhibiting a greater degree of humane-orientated and self-protective behaviour. In some instances, outstanding Maori leaders were also perceived as exhibiting a greater degree of charismatic/value-based and team-orientated behaviour, although in some cases this was perceived as similar for outstanding Maori and Pakeha leaders. Participative and autonomous leadership behaviour was perceived as making a similar contribution to outstanding Maori and Pakeha leadership. This study’s findings support previous research which suggests culturally unique leadership prototypes. It offers insight into Maori leadership (as perceived by Maori followers) and provides a rough sketch-map of homogeneous and heterogeneous aspects of Maori and Pakeha leaders’ perceived behaviour.

Pakeha identity has long been problematic, caught in a straddling stance between European co-ordinates of origin, and life in Aotearoa. This has been particularly evident over the last three decades: with the rise of tino rangatiratanga, Pakeha identity has undergone something of a crisis. Group identity, especially in such periods of crisis, requires �narratives� that re-imagine being and belonging. Poetry by Pakeha both displays the problem with identity at the cross cultural threshold between Maori and Pakeha, asking � what happens when Pakeha engage cross-culturally with te ao Maori, appropriating te reo Maori and drawing on Maoritanga, to re-vision and reconfigure identity? And how does such an approach shape the imagining of Pakeha identity?� I study, in parallel, the cross-cultural poetry of James K. Baxter and Glen Colquhoun in relation to these questions. Borrowing a conceptual metaphor from Colin McCahon, I examine these cross-cultural poems in detail as �load-bearing structures�. I pay particular attention to the way in which, in purpose, design and materials, they function to re-imagine Pakeha identity in reciprocal relationship with te ao Maori. Aware of the problems of culture-crossing, at the outset I establish a historical and interpretive framework for the poetry. Furthermore, I discuss the question of appropriation, arguing for an ethical distinction between appropriation and misappropriation based on a cross-cultural relationship of faithful and reciprocal engagement. I conclude that Baxter and Colquhoun are singular and radical in their reconfiguration of Pakeha identity. Baxter embraces te ao Maori in a direct challenge to Pakeha nationalism, prescribing the necessary corrective of the tuakana-teina dynamic to Pakeha identity and its relationship with te ao Maori. Writing after the Maori renaissance, Glenn Colquhoun irreverently opens up a further reconfiguration of cross-cultural relationship, pushing both Maori and Pakeha beyond a cultural dichotomy towards a mutually defining complementarity. Both place themselves on the cultural threshold of language, embracing the tensions of the cross-cultural scenario. The result is cross-cultural poetry, load-bearing structures that manifest the tension and ambivalence of the settler culture�s straddling identity, enacting what it is to be Pakeha.

Summary: "The ignorance which, generally speaking, prevails regarding the true character of the aboriginal population is not wonderful, simply because we know that there is no other branch of knowledge of which men are so thoroughly ignorant as the study of man himself. the constitution of man, mental as well as bodily, forms as yet no part of the ordinary course of education; and men are sent forth into the world to meet, deal, and to treat with one another, in total ignorance of each other�s character. it is not, under such circumstances, to be wonderer at, that, even in civilized life, disputes, quarrels, and troubles should exist; how much less so when the two extremes, the savage and the civilized, are brought into contact with one another."(1) With these words Dr. Martin, in 1845, outlined the need for special training for those who had to deal with native races, whether as missionaries, administrators, or merely as settlers amongst them. All those who came into contact with the Maoris had, of necessity, to study their ways to a certain extent, and some naturally, were more proficient in this than were their fellows. Wherever there was one who, through his understanding of the native character and the strength of his influence, was able to guide both Maori and Pakeha in their relations with one another, there the two peoples lived in peace. Dissension arose through the ignorance of either party of laws of the other, or because those laws were deliberately flouted. Training in the study of man, as suggested by Martin, would have dispelled this ignorance and inculcated a spirit of tolerance which could have eased much of the friction that ensued. Where it was essential to compromise on conflicting points, or where the weaker of the two parties was forced to conform to the ways of the other, then again this training would have indicated the best procedure to be adopted. But no system of schooling at that time included a study of anything like anthropology, which was then an unthought-of science, and the only hope of harmonious race relations lay in the possibility that certain of those in responsible positions amongst both Europeans and Maoris would have enough wit to discern the right course--Introduction.

Summary: Native policy not only engaged the minds of the New Zealanders, especially the North Islanders, during 1858, but it was also an important topic in the 1858 Session of Parliament. To gain a true idea of the importance of native policy in the Session, one must know something of native affairs and how native problems had been dealt with previously. One must also know something of the characters and personalities of men dealing with this question, and what the public thought. There was considerable tension and conflict between the Governor and his ministers in native affairs, and it is interesting to speculate whether or not matters would have been improved had the Ministers been responsible for Native policy as they were in everything else; also, whether it was possible to avert the conflict between the Pakeha and native, or whether it was the inevitable result of two races with conflicting interests living in the same country. I have not attempted to deal at all with other matters which occupied the minds both of the settlers and the General Assembly, although some of these were of primary importance - for instance, a very fierce controversy was being waged between extreme Provincialism and extreme centralism. There was also the question of where the seat of Government should be, and other matters such as the Steam Ship Service. Also, each province was naturally interested in its own local matters - the "Nelson Examinerquot; was full of the gold fields, and the quot;Wellington Independentquot; was full of party strife. Naturally, the South Island was not very concerned with the native problem, although the different newspapers consistently reported on affairs in Taranaki and the Waikato. They were also content to let the North Island take the lead in the General Assembly in matters of native policy.

Set on a farm on the Kaipara Harbour of Northland, New Zealand, this novel traces the lives of a family over a six year period near the end of the twentieth century. Themes include: Scottish and Croatian-Dalmatian immigration, Māori spiritual and cultural values, the weaving and assimilation of diverse cultures into a vibrant new culture, the economics of farming on marginal lands, father-son relationships, sibling rivalry, marijuana cultivation and the disparities between urban and rural lifestyles and expectations. The plotline follows the frustrations and subsequent actions of the eldest son as he seeks a future, which he realises is dependent on his acquiring the family farm. His impulsive behaviour leads to the climax of the story and puts himself and other members of the family in jeopardy and risks the family losing the farm altogether.

This thesis investigates the suprasegmental properties of Maori English and Pakeha English, the two main ethnolects of New Zealand English. Firstly, in a Production Experiment the speech of 36 New Zealenders is acoustically analysed. Using the Pairwise Variability Index (PVI) to measure syllabic rhythm, the study reveals that the two ethnic varieties display differing rhythmic patterns, with Maori English being significantly more syllable-timed than Pakeha English. It is also shown that, overall, Maori speakers use a higher percentage of High Rising Terminals than Pakeha speakers. The results relating to pitch suggest that Maori English pitch is becoming higher over time, with young Maori speakers producing a significantly higher mean pitch than young Pakeha speakers. Secondly, a Perception Experiment using 107 listeners is carried out to investigate the role of suprasegmental information in the identification of Maori English and Pakeha English. The ability of listeners to identify the two dialects based on prosodic cues only is tested in seven different speech conditions. The various conditions aim to isolate the precise suprasegmental features participants may use to identify speaker ethnicity. The results reveal that listeners are aware of the differing rhythmic properties of Maori English and Pakeha English, and are capable of tuning into the rhythmic characteristics of a speaker to use it as a cue in dialect identification, with some level of accuracy. The perceptual relevance of other prosodic cues is also discussed and the results indicate that, based on certain stereotypes, Maori English speech is assumed to be low-pitched, monotonous, hesitant and slow in pace. It is also shown that listeners who have had greater exposure to Maori English perform significantly better in a dialect identification task than those who are not integrated into Maori social networks, proving that the linguistic experience of the listener is a key indicator of his or her performance in ethnic dialect identification.

People telling stories of national identity, land and spirituality contribute to the local formation of the nation. I explore this view of nationhood in Aotearoa/New Zealand from Māori and Pākehā perspectives. Theorising this exploration, I form my own national identity concept for guiding analysis, that of locally narrated roots. Locally narrated roots is, essentially, a way of looking at national identity through the everyday narration of land, spirituality and history/ancestry by individuals. Supporting the production of this term is Smith’s (2003) theory of revised ethno-symbolism, which links religion, nationalism, land and history/ancestry, and Thompson’s (2001) grounded, everyday approach summed up as local production of national identity. Research methods draw upon Thompson’s people-focussed approach in conjunction with a narrative approach inspired by life story and Kaupapa Māori Research practices, which informed the conducting of twelve semi-structured interviews. From these interviews, six Māori and six Pākehā stories of history, ancestry, spirituality, land and identity were generated. These narratives revealed that colonial settler society, romanticism and whakapapa (genealogy) are central to this research and vital for further exploration on national identity. I close with the suggestion that participants’ stories enact a process of locally authenticating one’s national identity. I also suggest this local authentication is a secular spirituality, an idea that combines both patent secularism and spirituality, and is expressed through land, history and ancestry in Aotearoa/New Zealand.