Objetivo: Avaliar os efeitos da obesidade materna sobre a estrutura do pâncreas e metabolismo de carboidratos no início da vida adulta, com foco na prole da primeira geração (F1) e segunda geração (F2) de progenitoras F0 alimentadas com dieta rica em gordura nos períodos pré-gestacional, durante a gestação e lactação. Métodos: Camundongos C57BL/6 do gênero feminino (F0) foram alimentadas com dieta padrão (SC) ou dieta rica em gordura (HF) durante as oito semanas que antecederam o acasalamento, durante a gestação e lactação para gerar a F1 (F1-SC e F1-HF). As proles geradas receberam dieta SC até o terceiro mês de vida. Aos três meses de idade, fêmeas F1 foram acasaladas para gerar a F2 (F2-SC e F2-HF). Apenas os machos das geração F1 e F2 foram avaliados aos 3 meses de idade. As características metabólicas foram avaliadas pela massa corporal (MC), glicemia de jejum, área sob a curva no teste oral de tolerância a glicose; análise plasmática de insulina, leptina e adiponectina; distribuição e análise morfológica do pâncreas através da imunohistoquímica e imunofluorescência. Resultados: A prole F1-HF teve aumento significativo na massa corporal e glicemia quando comparado à F1-SC. Por outro lado, as proles F2-HF e F2-SC tiveram massas corporais semelhantes. A prole F1-HF e F2-HF mostrou aumento da ingestão de energia, intolerância à glicose, hiperinsulinemia, hiperleptinemia, hipoadiponectinemia, resistência à insulina, aumento da massa pancreática, o aumento da densidade de volume de ilhotas com elevada massa de células alfa e beta, ilhotas hipertrofiadas caracterizadas por uma distribuição alterada de células alfa e beta, e fraca imunoreatividade do pâncreas homeobox duodeno-1 (PDx1). Conclusões: Uma dieta HF materna consumida durante o período pré-concepção e durante toda a gestação e lactação em camundongos promoveu programação metabólica do pâncreas endócrino com pré-disposição ao diabetes mellitus tipo 2 precoce nas proles F1 e F2 do gênero masculino, sugerindo que essas mudanças são intergeracionais. / To evaluate the effects of maternal obesity upon pancreas structure and carbohydrate metabolism in early adult life, focusing on F1 and F2 generations of F0 dams fed high-fat diet during the pre-pregnancy, gestation, and lactation periods. Methods: C57BL/6 female mice (F0) were fed standard chow (SC) or HF diet for 8 weeks prior to mating and during gestation and lactation to provide F1 generation (F1-SC and F1-HF). At 3 months of age, F1 females were mated to produce F2 generation (F2-SC and F2-HF). Male offspring from all groups were evaluated at 3 months of age. Results: F1-HF offspring had significantly higher body mass and glycemia than F1-SC offspring. Conversely, F2-HF and F2-SC offspring had similar body masses. F1-HF and F2-HF offspring showed increased energy intake, glucose intolerance, hyperinsulinemia, hyperleptinemia, hypoadiponectinemia, insulin resistance, increased pancreatic mass, increased islet volume density with elevated alpha and beta cell mass, hypertrophied islets characterized by an altered distribution of alpha and beta cells, and weak pancreatic-duodenal homeobox (Pdx1) immunoreactivity. Conclusions: A maternal HF diet consumed during the preconception period and throughout the gestation and lactation in mice promotes metabolic and pancreatic programming in F1 and F2 male offspring, suggesting that these changes are intergenerational.

Spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is the leading genetic cause of death of young children. It is an autosomal recessive disease caused by the mutation and/or the deletion within the ubiquitously expressed survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) gene. SMA pathology is characterized by spinal cord motor neuron degeneration, neuromuscular junction (NMJ) defects and muscular atrophy. Upon disease onset, SMA patients progressively become paralyzed and in the most severe cases, they die due to respiratory complications. Over the years, it has become clear that SMN is a multi-functional protein with important roles in small nuclear ribonucleoprotein (snRNP) assembly, RNA metabolism, axonal outgrowth and pathfinding, mRNA transport as well as in the functional development of NMJs, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. However, it remains unclear which of these functions, and the respective perturbed molecular pathways, dictate SMA pathogenesis. Here, we have established Smn-depleted PC12 cells and an intermediate SMA mouse model to characterize a role for Smn in the regulation of actin cytoskeleton dynamics. We find that Smn depletion results in the increased expression of profilin IIa and active RhoA (RhoA-GTP) as well as the decreased expression of plastin 3 and Cdc42. Importantly, the inhibition of rho-kinase (ROCK), a direct downstream regulator of RhoA, significantly increased the lifespan of SMA mice and shows beneficial potential as a therapeutic strategy for SMA. In an addition, we have uncovered a muscle- and motor neuron-independent role for SMN in the regulation of pancreatic development and glucose metabolism in SMA mice and type 1 SMA patients. This finding highlights the importance of combining a glucose tolerance assessment of SMA patients with their existing clinical care management. Thus, our work has uncovered two novel and equally important roles for the SMN protein, both of which contribute significantly to SMA pathogenesis.

O transplante de ilhotas microencapsuladas constitui uma alternativa terapêutica interessante para o Diabetes Mellitus tipo 1, permitindo um melhor controle glicêmico e eliminando a necessidade de imunossupressão. Entretanto, a manutenção a longo prazo da viabilidade das células-&#946; ainda é um desafio. No isolamento, a perda da matriz extracelular e as condições hipóxicas subsequentes afetam decisivamente a sobrevivência e funcionalidade das ilhotas. Objetivo Para diminuir o estresse sobre o enxerto, levando a um sucesso prolongado do transplante, propôs-se a adição de perfluorocarbono (PFC) ou laminina (LN), moléculas associadas respectivamente à oxigenação e interações célula-célula, ao biomaterial baseado em alginato, Biodritina, adequado ao encapsulamento celular. Metodologia Para testar a estabilidade das formulações PFC-Biodritina e LN-Biodritina, microcápsulas foram submetidas a diferentes estresses (rotacional, osmótico, temperatura e cultura) por 7 e 30 dias. A pureza do biomaterial foi avaliada pela coincubação com macrófagos murinos RAW264.7, por 3, 9 e 24h, quando a ativação dos macrófagos foi observada pela expressão gênica de IL- 1&#946; e TNF&#945;. Microcápsulas implantadas i.p. em camundongos foram recuperadas após 7 ou 30 dias, para análises de biocompatibilidade. A expressão de níveis de mRNA (bax, bad, bcl-2, bcl-XL, xiap, caspase 3, mcp1/ccl2, hsp70, ldh, insulina 1 e 2), proteínas (Bax, Bcl-XL e Xiap) e a atividade de Caspase3 foram avaliadas em ilhotas microencapsuladas com PFC- e LN-Biodritina, após cultura de 48h em condições de normóxia e hipóxia (<2% O2). Camundongos diabéticos foram transplantados com ilhotas encapsuladas nas diferentes formulações e os animais foram monitorados pelas variações de massa corporal, glicêmicas e pela funcionalidade do enxerto (TOTGs). As ilhotas foram recuperadas de animais normo ou hiperglicêmicos e uma análise de biocompatibilidade das cápsulas foi realizada, assim como a avaliação funcional das células-&#946;. Após o explante, a glicemia dos animais normoglicêmicos foi monitorada para se atestar a eficiência das ilhotas transplantadas. Resultados Microcápsulas de PFC- e LN-Biodritina são tão estáveis e biocompatíveis quanto as de Biodritina. Para ilhotas encapsuladas em ambos os materiais, em normóxia ou hipóxia, observou-se uma modulação gênica que sugere proteção contra apoptose. Adicionalmente, encontrou-se uma diminuição na expressão de genes indicadores de estresse (mcp1, hsp70). Uma diminuição nos níveis de mRNA de ldh foi vista para PFC-Biodritina, mas o oposto foi encontrado para LN-Biodritina. As diferenças encontradas na expressão proteica sugerem o mesmo padrão anti-apoptótico. Caspase3 não foi modulada por nenhum biomaterial. Nos experimentos de transplante, apenas LN-Biodritina levou reversão prolongada do diabetes, com 60% dos animais normoglicêmicos, 198 dias pós-cirurgia, comparado a 9% do grupo Biodritina. O TOTG demonstrou que camundongos transplantados com ilhotas encapsuladas secretaram mais insulina do que controles, 60 (LN-Biodritina) ou 100 (PFC- e LN-Biodritina) dias pós-cirurgia. O explante restabeleceu a hiperglicemia nos camundongos. Microcápsulas recuperadas de animais hiperglicêmicos apresentavam uma extensa adesão celular. Testes de secreção de insulina in vitro demonstraram que somente ilhotas do grupo normoglicêmico responderam às variações da concentração de glicose. Conclusão A adição de moléculas bioativas à Biodritina é capaz de diminuir o estresse em ilhotas isoladas e tem o potencial de melhorar a terapia pelo transplante de ilhotas. / Transplantation of microencapsulated islets represents an attractive therapeutical approach to treat type 1 Diabetes Mellitus, accounting for an improved glycemic control and the abolishment of immunosuppressive therapies. However, maintenance of long-term &#946;-cell viability remains a major problem. During islet isolation, the loss of extracellular matrix interactions and the hypoxic conditions thereafter dramatically affect &#946;-cell survival and function. Objective To lessen the burden of islet stress and achieve a better outcome in islet transplantation we tested the addition of perfluorocarbon (PFC) or laminin (LN), molecules associated respectively with oxygenation and cell-cell interaction, to Biodritin, an alginate-based material suitable for cell microencapsulation. Methodology To test the stability of PFC-Biodritin and LN-Biodritin composites, microcapsules were subjected to different stresses (rotational, osmotic, temperature and culture) for 7 and 30 days. To assess biomaterial purity microcapsules were co-incubated with RAW264.7 murine macrophage cell line for 3, 9 and 24h and macrophage activation was detected through mRNA levels of IL-1&#946; and TNF&#945;. Microcapsules were implanted i.p. in mice and retrieved after 7 or 30 days, for biocompatibility analyses. Gene expression at mRNA (bax, bad, bcl-2, bcl-XL, xiap, caspase 3, mcp1/ccl2, hsp70, ldh, insulin 1 and 2) and protein (Bax, Bcl-XL and Xiap) levels, together with Caspase3 activity, were evaluated in islets microencapsulated in PFC- or LN-Biodritin, upon culturing for 48h in normoxic or hypoxic (<2% O2) conditions. Diabetic mice were transplanted with PFC- or LN-Biodritin microencapsulated islets, followed by assessments of body weight, glycemia and graft function by oral glucose tolerance tests (OGTTs). Microencapsulated islets were retrieved from normoglycemic or hyperglycemic mice and biocompatibility analyses of the beads together with a functional assessment of the graft followed. After graft removal, normoglycemic animals had their glycemias monitored to attest the efficacy of the transplanted islets. Results PFC- and LN-Biodritin microcapsules were as stable and biocompatible as Biodritin. For both biomaterials in normoxia and hypoxia a modulation in gene expression was observed in islets associated with a protection against apoptosis. Also, a decreased expression of stress-related genes (mcp1, hsp70) was evidenced. ldh mRNA levels were down-regulated in PFC-Biodritin microencapsulated islets but upregulated in the presence of LN. Increased levels of insulin mRNA were observed. The differences seen in protein expression indicated the same anti-apoptotic pattern. Caspase3 activity was not different between groups. Concerning diabetes reversal experiments, only mice transplanted with LN-Biodritin microencapsulated islets presented a better outcome, with 60% remaining euglycemic at 198 days post-surgery, compared with 9% for the Biodritin group. OGTT showed that mice transplanted with encapsulated islets secreted more insulin than normal mice, 60 (LN-Biodritin) or 100 days (PFC- and LN-Biodritina) posttransplant. Hyperglycemia was achieved after the retrieval of microcapsules showing graft efficacy. Retrieved microcapsules revealed an extensive overgrowth in most beads from hyperglycemic mice. A static glucose stimulated insulin secretion test revealed that only islets from normoglycemic subjects were able to secrete insulin according to glucose concentration. Conclusion- The addition of bioactive molecules to Biodritin may lessen the stress of isolated islets and have the potential to improve islet transplantation therapy.

Transplantation of pancreatic islets (PIs) represents an alternative treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus. Post-transplant monitoring of islets by a reliable imaging method may contribute to the improvement of the transplantation outcome. In this thesis, novel visualization approaches for PIs were tested using magnetic resonance (MR) and optical imaging on phantoms and experimental animals, including Chemical Exchange Saturation Transfer (CEST) MR, fluorine (19 F) MR, bioluminescence and fluorescence imaging. MR imaging based on frequency-selective method CEST was performed on islets labeled with Eu-/Yb-based chelates. Labeled islets possessed low MR signal in phantoms, what would have been unsatisfactory for in vivo applications. Moreover, viability and function of labeled islets was impaired reflecting limited applicability of these agents for islet labeling and visualization. Genetically modified bioluminescent islets showed suitable properties for longitudinal tracking of their post-transplant fate at an artificial transplant site - subcutaneously implanted polymeric scaffolds. Using multimodal imaging (MR and bioluminescence), the optimal timing for transplantation of islets into the scaffolds was assessed in diabetic rats. Islets transplanted into scaffolds using the optimized timing scheme...

Os efeitos do treinamento aeróbio moderado sobre a viabilidade celular e a GSIS das ilhotas pancreáticas foram investigados em camundongos C57BL/6 alimentados com dieta rica em lipídios (60%) e sacarose (20%) (HFDS). Os grupos foram: HFDS, dieta controle (C), HFDS treinado (HFDSTR), controle treinado (CTR). Após 8 semanas, houve aumentada massa corporal e adiposidade e diminuída tolerância à glicose e sensibilidade à insulina no HFDS; tais efeitos foram atenuados em HFDSTR. Houve menor percentual de células viáveis e prejudicada GSIS no HFDS do que no HFDSTR e C. As expressões do GLUT2 e da CuZn superóxido dismutase-1 (SOD1) foram diminuídas em HFDS, mas não no HFDSTR. As respostas observadas nas ilhotas do grupo HFDSTR foram semelhantes ao grupo C. O treinamento aeróbio de 8 semanas preveniu os efeitos deletérios da HFDS sobre a sensibilidade à insulina, viabilidade celular e GSIS e manteve o conteúdo enzimático antioxidante endógeno, sugerindo que o treinamento aeróbio possa ser benéfico na prevenção dos efeitos deletérios de uma HFDS. / This study investigated the aerobic training effects on GSIS and pancreatic islet cellular viability in C57BL/6 mice fed a high fat (60%) and sucrose (20%) diet (HFDS). The groups were: HFDS, control diet (C), HFDS + training (HFDSTR) and control trained (CTR). After 8 weeks the HFDS significantly increased body mass and adiposity, decreased glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity, and impaired GSIS and cellular viability; these effects were attenuated in HFDSTR. There were less viable pancreatic islets cells and impaired GSIS in HFDS than in HFDSTR and C. The decreased GLUT 2 and CuZn-superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) protein expression in HFDS were increased in HFDSTR. Most pancreatic islet responses were similar between HFDSTR and C. Eight weeks aerobic training prevented deleterious effects of HFDS on insulin sensitivity, cellular viability and GSIS, and maintained endogenous antioxidant enzyme content, thus suggesting that aerobic training may be beneficial to prevent adverse metabolic effects associated with westernized diet consuming.

De l’isolement des îlots pancréatiques à leur implantation, l’inflammation est omniprésente au cours de la transplantation d’îlots pancréatiques. Le maintien d’une inflammation contrôlée est essentiel pour préserver la survie et la fonctionnalité du greffon à court et long terme. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est d’identifier précisément les mécanismes inflammatoires à l’origine de la perte précoce des îlots et de déterminer des cibles thérapeutiques pour limiter ces réactions inflammatoires.Nous avons ainsi démontré que les conditions de culture induisent des réactions à l’origine du développement d’un phénotype pro-inflammatoire et pro-oxydant propre à l’îlot. Cette induction se caractérise par une élévation de la sécrétion de cytokines, de chimiokines pro-inflammatoires, une activation des voies de l’inflammation Toll-like récepteurs (TLRs)-dépendantes et une génération d’espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS). Toutefois, ce processus peut être prévenu par l’activation de l’Hème oxygénase-1 (HO-1), une enzyme anti-oxydante et anti-inflammatoire.Par l’étude des réactions inflammatoires sur un modèle animal de transplantation mimant les conditions de transplantation humaine, nous avons démontré qu’un changement des médiateurs plasmatiques de l’inflammation et du protéome hépatique s’opère 12 heures après transplantation. De plus, ces résultats sont associés à une infiltration des îlots par les cellules immunitaires qui s’organise 12 heures après transplantation. Nous avons également établi le rôle anti-inflammatoire de la rapamycine (une drogue immunomodulatrice) sur les îlots et les macrophages in vitro. Nous avons ainsi démontré que l’usage de la rapamycine avec la mise en place d’un pré-traitement des îlots et du receveur avant la greffe serait envisageable. Ces travaux ont permis de caractériser les mécanismes inflammatoires mis en oeuvre immédiatement avant et après transplantation. Ainsi, ces données offrent de nouvelles pistes thérapeutiques susceptibles de prévenir et/ou limiter l’inflammation au cours de la transplantation d’îlots pancréatiques. / From isolation of pancreatic islets to their implantation, the inflammation is ubiquitous in the pancreatic islet transplantation. Maintaining a controlled inflammation is essential to preserve the survival of the graft and the functionality in the short and long term. The objective of this work is to identify precisely the inflammatory mechanisms behind the early loss of islets and identify therapeutic targets to reduce these inflammatory reactions. We have demonstrated that culture conditions induce reactions causing the development of a specific proinflammatory and pro-oxydant phenotype islet. This induction is characterized by an increase in the secretion of cytokines, chemokines pro-inflammatory activation pathways of inflammation Toll-like receptors (TLRs) -dependent and generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, this process can be prevented by the activation of Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory enzyme.By studying the inflammatory responses in an animal model of transplantation mimicking the conditions of human transplantation, we demonstrated that a change of plasma mediators of inflammation and liver proteome occurs 12 hours after transplantation. Furthermore, these results are associated with infiltration of the islets by immune cells which organizes 12 hours after transplantation. We also determined the anti-inflammatory role of rapamycin (an immunomodulatory drug) on the islets and macrophages in vitro. We have thus demonstrated that the use of rapamycin with the establishment of a pre-treatment of islets and recipient before transplantation could be considered. These studies have characterized the inflammatory mechanisms implemented immediately before and after transplantation. Thus, these data provide new therapeutic approaches that can prevent and / or reduce inflammation during pancreatic islet transplantation

Le diabète de type 2 (DT2) résulte de l’incapacité des cellules β sécrétrices d’insuline à compenser la résistance à l’insuline qui s’installe chez les patients obèses. Un traitement potentiel viserait donc à augmenter la sécrétion d’insuline. Dans ce sens, les récepteurs aux acides gras GPR120 et GPR40 potentialisent la sécrétion d’insuline. Cependant, la signalisation GPR120 dans les îlots est méconnue. L’activation de GPR120 diminue la sécrétion de somatostatine (SST), un inhibiteur de la sécrétion d’insuline, par les cellules δ. Ces deux récepteurs régulent l’homéostasie du glucose et sont donc possiblement complémentaires. Nos objectifs étaient d’étudier la signalisation GPR120 dans les îlots pancréatiques, ainsi que la complémentarité des récepteurs GPR120 et GPR40 dans le contrôle de l’homéostasie glucidique. À l’aide d’îlots isolés de souris n’exprimant pas GPR120, constitutivement ou uniquement dans les cellules δ, nous avons étudié le rôle de GPR120 dans les sécrétions d’insuline, glucagon et de SST. Nous avons ensuite étudié des souris n’exprimant pas GPR40, GPR120 ou les deux, sous une diète riche en gras pendant 12 semaines pour étudier la complémentarité des deux récepteurs. L’activation de GPR120 diminue la sécrétion de SST et stimule les sécrétions d’insuline et de glucagon dans les îlots isolés. Cet effet est aboli par la délétion de GPR120 dans les cellules δ in vitro, et la double délétion de GPR120 et GPR40 ne révèle pas d’action complémentaire dans l’homéostasie glucidique. Ces résultats suggèrent que la signalisation GPR120 dans les cellules δ est responsable de l’amélioration de la fonction des îlots. Une meilleure compréhension du rôle joué par GPR120 dans la fonction des îlots et l’homéostasie du glucose est cruciale et pourrait permettre le développement de nouvelles options thérapeutiques dans le traitement du diabète. / In obese patients, type 2 diabetes stems from the failure of the insulin-secreting beta cells to compensate for insulin resistance. Increasing insulin secretion is therefore a viable treatment strategy. In this regard, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) are proven therapeutic targets. Activation of the GPCR for long-chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acid GPR40 and GPR120 increase insulin secretion in response to glucose. However, exactly how GPR120 potentiates insulin secretion is unknown. GPR120 and GPR40 both regulate glucose homeostasis and therefore could act in a complementary manner. We aimed to decipher GPR120 signalling in the pancreatic islets and study the complementary roles of GPR120 and GPR40 in maintaining glucose homeostasis. To this aim, we first measured insulin, glucagon and somatostatin secretion following GPR120 activation in isolated islets from mice with a global or somatostatin-cell-specific knock-out of GPR120. Then we studied glucose metabolism in mice with global deletion of GPR120, GPR40 or both, under a high fat diet for 12 weeks. We observed increased insulin and glucagon secretions mirrored by a decreased in somatostatin release following GPR120 activation in isolated islets, an effect abolished by a global or δ-specific deletion of GPR120. A double deletion of GPR120 and GPR40 did not have more impact on glucose metabolism or beta-cell function compared to a simple deletion of either receptor. A better understanding of the GPR120 role in islet function is crucial and could lead to the discovery of new therapeutic options.

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