The effects of parent-child relationship quality and racial socialization on reports of racial discrimination to parents are examined in an African American emerging adult population. The effects of parent-child relationship quality and racial socialization on reports of racial discrimination to parents are also considered. The influences of demographic characteristics on reports of racial discrimination are also assessed. The purpose of this study is to examine if there are relationships between cultural origin, gender, socio-economic status and reports of racial discrimination to parents. The study also aims to determine if parent-child relationship quality has an effect on whether or not black youth report experiences of racial discrimination to their parents. The study included 133 emerging adult participants between the ages of 18-25, and 33 didactic pairs of parents and their emerging adult children. Via electronic surveys, young adults answered questions about their relationships with their parents, while the parents answered questions about their racial socialization strategies. The results indicated that cultural origin, gender, and SES did not have a relationship with reports of racial discrimination to parents. However, analyses suggested that having a low or working SES has a relationship with reporting racial discrimination to parents. Findings also showed that racial socialization along with parent-child relationship quality had an effect on reports of discrimination. Implications of these findings and future directions are discussed.

Social capital, or access to resources through relationships with other people, can facilitate the socioeconomic mobility of youth living in low-income communities. This study examined whether parent-child relationship quality and participation in a youth development program (YDP) were associated with gains in hope for the future, and whether those associations were mediated by parent social capital (i.e., access to resources through relationships with parents) and non-parent social capital (i.e., access to resources through relationships with people other than parents). The sample included 216 participants of one YDP program, Cool Girls, Inc., and 92 comparisons. Path analyses indicated that program participation for over one year predicted gains in non-parent social capital, and increases in both parent and non-parent social capital predicted increases in hope for the future. There was also evidence that first-year program participation was associated with gains in hope for the future. Implications for practice and research are discussed.

<p>Problem: Gay, bisexual, and queer (GBQ) adolescent males are disproportionately affected by negative sexual health outcomes compared to their heterosexual counterparts. Their sex education needs are not sufficiently addressed in the home and the larger ecological systems. The omission of their sex education needs at a time when they are forming a sexual identity during adolescence compels GBQ males to seek information in unsupervised settings. Evidence-based interventions aimed at ensuring positive sexual health outcomes through sex communication cannot be carried out with these youth as research on how parents and GBQ males discuss sex in the home has been largely uninvestigated. </p><p>Methods: This naturalistic qualitative study focused on the interpretive reports of 15- to 20-year-old GBQ males’ discussions about sex-related topics with their parents. From a purposive sample of 30 male adolescents who self-identified as GBQ, participants who could recall at least one conversation about sex with their parents were recruited for one-time interviews and card sorts. This strategy revealed, using Bronfenbrenners’ Bioecological Theory, their perceptions about sex communication in the context of their reciprocal relationship and the ecological systems that GBQ males and their parents navigate.</p><p>Results: Parents received poor ratings as sex educators, were generally viewed as not confident in their communication approach, and lacked knowledge about issues pertinent to GBQ sons. Nevertheless, participants viewed parents as their preferred source of sex information and recognized multiple functions of sex communication. The value placed by GBQ youth on sex communication underscores their desire to ensure an uninterrupted parent-child relationship in spite of their GBQ sexual orientation. For GBQ children, inclusive sex communication is a proxy for parental acceptance. </p><p>Results show that the timing, prompts, teaching aids, and setting of sex communication for this population are similar to what has been reported with heterosexual samples. However, most GBQ sons rarely had inclusive guidance about sex and sexuality that matched their attraction, behavior, and identities. Furthermore, the assumption of heterosexuality resulted in the early awareness of being different from their peers which led them to covertly search for sex information. The combination of assumed heterosexuality and their early reliance on themselves for applicable information is a missed parental opportunity to positively impact the health of GBQ sons. More importantly, due to the powerful reach of new media, there is a critical period of maximum receptiveness that has been identified which makes inclusive sex communication paramount in the pre-sexual stage for this population. Our findings also indicate that there are plenty of opportunities for systemic improvements to meet this population’s sexual education needs.</p> / Dissertation

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among early parenting experiences, adult mental health functioning, and adult parenting behaviors among a population of incarcerated women in San Bernardino, CA. An archival data set was utilized. Data were collected from three hundred thirty-six female participants in the San Bernardino County Jail System in 2011, aged 18 – 60 years (M = 34.02). Only those who are mothers (N=132), with children between the ages of two and 18 years old, participated in the current study. Structural equation modeling was conducted using EQS. Results showed that early experiences, specifically adverse childhood experiences, were strongly predictive of adult mental health. Surprisingly, adult mental health was not predictive of adult parenting behaviors. Adult parenting behaviors, though, were strongly predictive of the quality of parent-child relationship. Contrary to expectation, the hypothesized relationship between early experiences and adult parenting behaviors was not supported. The implication of these findings is that the central task of interventions seeking to improve adult mental health should include a focus on the impact of negative early experiences.

Relationship separation is prevalent in Western society and ongoing problems for adults and children are common, resulting in high personal and social costs. A literature review revealed that no existing measure of separation adjustment assessed multiple domains of separation adjustment, and was psychometrically sound. Additionally, a literature review revealed that few studies have investigated change in separation adjustment over time using cognitive predictors. This thesis is a program of research investigating separation adjustment in recently separated adults. Five studies were conducted with three main aims: (1) to develop a multidimensional, psychometrically reliable and valid measure of separation adjustment; (2) to assess the trajectory of separation adjustment over time; and (3) to test the hypothesis that certain cognitive variables predict the trajectory of separation adjustment. A conceptualisation of separation adjustment was developed consisting of the following five domains: Connection to the former partner, loneliness and emotional negativity (referred to as lonely negativity), parenting negotiation, parent-child relationship and general psychological adjustment. The Problems After Separation Test (PAST) was developed to reflect the first four of the five domains. In Study 1, 268 participants separated for up to 18 months, were recruited to assess the factor structure and internal consistency of the PAST. In Study 2, 209 participants were recruited to assess the stability of the factor structure, and temporal stability. In Study 3, participants from Study 2 were used to obtain convergent and divergent validity. The results of the first three studies showed that separation adjustment is a multidimensional construct, and that the PAST is a reliable and valid measure of separation adjustment. Study 4 aimed to assess the trajectory of separation adjustment over a 6 month period using the PAST and another measure of general psychological adjustment. Participants from both Study 1 and 2 were used, and a longitudinal cohort sequential design was employed. The sample consisted of three cohorts: those separated for up to six months, those separated between 6 and 12 months, and those separated between 12 and 18 months. The results showed that connection to the former partner, lonely negativity, and general psychological adjustment improved over time, but parent-child relationships and parenting negotiation were stable, and chronic parenting problems were common. Men showed greater parent-child relationship problems than women, possibly because men were most likely to be the non-resident parent. Participants separating from a de facto relationship reported only slightly more problems on lonely negativity, general psychological distress and parent-child relationships than participants separating from a marriage. Study 4 also provides information on clinical and reliable change, suggested cut-offs that might be used to define normal, moderate and severe adjustment problems, and attrition analyses. Using participants from Study 2, Study 5 aimed to assess cognitive predictors of change on connection to the former partner, lonely negativity and psychological distress. The cognitions assessed at each data collection were dysfunctional attitudes, attachment style, causal attributions, threat appraisal, and self-efficacy. Causal attributions were obtained by asking participants "For three minutes tell my about the problems you had in your relationship and what lead to the separation". The responses were transcribed, a coding manual was devised, and inter-rater reliability of coding was good. Cross-sectionally, the majority of cognitions were associated with one or more domains of separation adjustment, however longitudinally, cognitions did not predict change in separation adjustment over a 6-month period. Cognitions themselves were found to be somewhat variable, which is not surprising given that stressful life events, such as relationship separation would alter cognitions. Other variables that might be responsible for changes in separation adjustment trajectory are discussed. The results of the combined 5 studies have both theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, separation adjustment is a construct made up of distinct domains which have different trajectories. Connection, lonely negativity and psychological adjustment generally represent transient problems. Although the current research found that a non-trivial minority of participants continued to show distress on these domains two years post separation. On the other hand, parenting negotiation and the parent-child relationship was a chronic problem for many separated people, particularly men. Practically, the results of the current research suggests that most therapeutic attention should be directed towards improving parenting adjustment post separation. Limitations of the current research and suggestions for future research are discussed.

There are hundreds of thousands of children living in foster care in the United States on any given day. Mental health professionals may be called upon to assist with evaluating the parental capacity of these children’s parents in order to inform reunification decisions. One of the key parental capacity domains to be evaluated is the relationship between parent and child (Schmidt et al., 2007). The Working Model of the Child Interview coding scheme (WMCI; Zeanah et al., 1996) is one tool for evaluating this relationship. There is a significant practice-to-research gap with this measure. To date, no peer-reviewed studies have established the WMCI coding scheme’s psychometric properties; the need for such research with this measure has been cited in the literature (Sprang, Clark, & Bass, 2005). In this dissertation, the literature was reviewed on attachment theory and internal working models of caregiving, the WMCI and other measures of similar constructs, the importance of establishing a measure’s construct and criterion-validity, and forensic standards for measures. Then, it outlined a series of research questions aimed at exploring the psychometric properties of the WMCI Coding Scheme with mothers who have maltreated. Next, the methodology was described. Based on the results of the 403 biological mothers who completed the WMCI as part of court-appointed evaluations following child maltreatment, the items of the WMCI Coding Scheme were best conceptualized using two-factors: Quality and Content. This finding was consistent with the manual. Significant differences in item-level scores existed for all three WMCI descriptive classifications and for overall factor scores. Due to the instability of the two-item Content factor, this dissertation explored the use of a WMCI Total Score (combining the two factors) and using only the WMCI Quality factor and items. No significant relationships existed between any demographic characteristics and WMCI factor scores. Weak, negative correlations with other measures provided some evidence of convergent validity. In conclusion, some potential clinical/research implications for the WMCI Coding Scheme were made and limitations and future directions were described.

At the present time, the young adult transition into adulthood has been extended, which has also extended the launching stage. One result of the extended launching stage is that parents are now involved in active parenting longer than before. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of the extended launching stage in key areas (the parent- child relationship and parent support) on parental emotional wellbeing. The contribution of this research is that it adds to the limited body of knowledge about normative launching stage parenting practices and outcomes. This dissertation is a three chapter manuscript that uses data from the Longitudinal Study of Generations. Chapter one provides the background for the dissertation. Chapter two, using cross-sectional analyses, examines the effect of parent support and the parent-child relationship on parental emotional wellbeing between two parent cohorts—1985 and 2005. Chapters three and four are longitudinal studies that use cross-sectional regressions and fixed effect models to estimate parent role changes involving parental role evaluation and wellbeing at four time waves—1994, 1997, 2000, and 2005. Chapter three focuses on the effect of changes in parent support on parents’ emotional wellbeing. Chapter four investigates the impact of the parent-child relationship on parent role evaluation. The results of the analyses show that compared to their parents at the same point in their life course, contemporary parents have a lower quality of life. Results also find that over time, wellbeing is impacted by the quality of the parent-child relationship, but supporting young adult offspring does not impact self-esteem.

The present study evaluated a newly developed self-report questionnaire assessing young adults’ perceptions of their parents' current differential treatment of them and their siblings. This study also explored the influence of young adults' perceptions of parental differential treatment (PDT) on their general adjustment, sibling relationship quality, and romantic relationship adjustment. Attachment style was hypothesized to mediate the relations between PDT and these psychosocial outcomes in young adulthood. Participants included 275 university students and non-student community participants aged 18 to 25 years. Participants completed multiple-choice questionnaires assessing the variables of interest. The factor structure of the new measure of perceptions of PDT was confirmed by results of confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modelling, and this new measure showed good internal consistency and good convergent validity when compared to another widely used self-report measure of PDT. Young adults’ perceptions of higher overall levels of PDT, regardless of which sibling was favoured, and their perceptions of being treated less positively than their siblings were associated with poorer general and romantic relationship adjustment, more insecure attachment style, and poorer quality sibling relationships. A control variable, social desirability, was found to be related to self-reports of lower levels of perceived PDT, more secure attachment style, more positive parent-child and sibling relationships, and better general and romantic relationship adjustment. Results of path analyses showed that attachment style partially mediated the relations between maternal and paternal PDT and sibling relationship quality. Attachment style fully mediated the relations between maternal and paternal PDT and adjustment, and between maternal PDT and romantic relationship adjustment. PDT was related to sibling relationship quality even after accounting for the influence of overall parent-child relationship quality and perceptions of unfairness of PDT. The present study’s strengths and limitations and the implications of the current findings for clinical practice and future research are discussed. / Graduate

While traditional behavioural parent training programmes have assisted families with concerns of child behaviour problems, they have not kept abreast with recent conceptualisations of the development of problematic behaviours in the parent-child relationship. Research has indicated that understanding of this relationship needs to go beyond bidirectional explanations and that a dialectical framework better describes the complexity of this relationship, which, in turn, should be reflected in the parent training programmes offered. Therefore, this study provided a parent training programme focused on balance in the parent-child relationship, which encapsulated the complex, dialectical nature of this intimate relationship. A central implication when adopting this notion of balance was that all aspects of the programme were addressed at the parent and child level. In addition, multiple factors were addressed that included mindfulness and acceptance, dealing with emotions, understanding development, and addressing parental attributions. It was only within this overarching concept of balance and relationship factors that behavioural skills were introduced. Mechanisms of change were identified by investigating parental emotional schemas through their narratives about themselves, their child, and the programme. This research involved 23 parents with their 3-4 year-old children in a parent training programme where both the parent and child met weekly with a therapist in group parent training. The groups involved 2-hourly sessions for 5 weeks, modelled on a “coffee morning” where parents met and discussed issues and the children played alongside in the same room. A research assistant was available to play with and tend to basic needs of the children. Measures at pre-, post-treatment, and at follow-up targeted child behaviour problems, how much of a problem these were for the parents, parents’ sense of competence, parental attributions, and what was useful for parents in the programme. Results indicated that at post-treatment parents were able to address and maintain balance in their parent-child relationship and this reflected multiple dimensions of a dialectical understanding that had not been evident prior to the intervention. There was an increased mindfulness of both parent and child’s needs with a strong emphasis on an increased understanding of the child as an individual in their own right. Parents reported an increased recognition of the importance of dealing with emotions, with improved skills to be able to do this, an increased understanding of accommodating development, and an appreciation of needing to address parental attributions. In addition, there was a decrease in parent-reported intensity of child behaviour problems and how problematic these were for the parents, which were corroborated with parental verbal reports of improved child behaviour. Mechanisms of change that were identified included changes in parental attributions, parents being able to share with other parents, accessing “expert” knowledge from the programme facilitator, and gaining parental strategies. Implications for practice were discussed with suggestions for behavioural parent training programmes. In conclusion, limitations of the research and directions for future research were indicated.

Denna studie undersökte föräldrar till barn som upplevdes ha höga problem med hyperaktivitet/impulsivitet och uppmärksamhet. Studiens syfte var att undersöka om föräldrarnas välbefinnande, föräldraroll och reaktioner på barnets beteende skiljde sig åt mellan dem som hade ett barn med Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) och dem vars barn inte hade diagnosen. Deltagarna (N=1086) var föräldrar som svarade på en enkät från Nationella Jämförelsestudien (en utvärdering av föräldrastödsprogram i Sverige). Denna studie fokuserade på de 225 föräldrar till barn som hade höga ADHD-relaterade beteenden, varav 62 barn hade ADHD-diagnos och 163 hade inte denna diagnos. Resultaten av variansanalyser visade att föräldrar till barn med ADHD-diagnos och föräldrarna till barn utan diagnos inte skiljde sig åt gällande deras välbefinnande, föräldraskap och reaktioner på barnet. Den här studien föreslår att båda grupper av föräldrar till barn som visar stora svårigheter med hyperaktivitet/impulsivitet och uppmärksamhetsproblem behöver socialt stöd. / This study evaluated parents of children who perceived high in problems with hyperactivity/impulsivity and attention. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether parents’ well-being, parenting role or reaction on the child’s behavior differed between parents’ who had a child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and parents of a child with no diagnose. Participants (N=1086) answered a survey from the National Effectiveness Evaluation of Parenting Programs in Sweden. Focus was on 225 parents of children who had high ADHD-related behaviors, 62 children had an ADHD-diagnose and 163 had no diagnose. The results of analyses did not show any differences on well-being, parenting role or reaction on the child’s behavior between parents of children who were diagnosed ADHD and parents of children with no diagnose. This study suggests that both these groups of parents with children high in hyperactivity/impulsivity and inattention need social support.