O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento surge a partir da década de 70 como expressão de resistência dos países do então Terceiro Mundo a uma ordem mundial pós-guerra entendida essencialmente como injusta e cuja doutrina do desenvolvimento tal como prescrita não conseguia equalizar. A partir de movimentações políticas, os países em desenvolvimento emplacaram tal tratamento no âmbito de importantes documentos internacionais e acordos multilaterais. O tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento se expressa no direito internacional ambiental por meio do princípio das responsabilidades comuns mas diferenciadas e respectivas capacidades, consagrado da Declaração do Rio sobre Meio Ambiente e Desenvolvimento, de 1992, e cuja expressão máxima é a Convenção-Quadro das Nações Unidas sobre Mudanças Climáticas (CQMC). Tendo como objeto o tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento, delimitado às obrigações centrais no âmbito da CQMC, a presente pesquisa encara o problema de sua operacionalização desde a mencionada Convenção até o seu Acordo de Paris. Para tanto, a pesquisa vale-se do método dedutivo, uma abordagem estruturalista e materialista-histórica para a análise de conteúdo dos textos jurídicos, observando a operacionalização do tratamento diferenciado em nas obrigações em termos de vinculatividade, precisão e delegação. O resultado foi que as mudanças climáticas são necessariamente um debate sobre desigualdades em termos de responsabilidade, mitigação e vulnerabilidade. Sob a alegação de um mundo mais complexo, onde a expressão ‘Terceiro Mundo’ é substituída pela noção de ‘Sul Global’, afirma-se que tal enquadramento de uma dívida Norte-Sul não seria mais pertinente, esvaziando o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Porém, a persistência da dívida Norte-Sul em termos dinâmicos aponta que tal tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento também continua atual. No intuito de instrumentalizar as obrigações da Convenção, o Protocolo de Quioto – endossado principalmente pelos países europeus – estabelece uma arquitetura descendente, apoiado em normas diferenciais por meio de compromissos de redução precisos, vinculantes e firmados internacionalmente, tendo como destinatários, em um primeiro momento, os países desenvolvidos. O Acordo de Paris – que reflete a estratégia dos Estados Unidos desde antes da própria Convenção – estabelece uma arquitetura ascendente, recorrendo a normas contextuais, onde os compromissos são nacionalmente determinados e isentos de um escrutínio internacional. O Acordo – cuidadosamente redigido – não estabelece nenhuma obrigação substancial precisa ou mesmo vinculante sobre tais contribuições, deixando ampla margem para todos os países e tornando a liderança dos países desenvolvidos no enfrentamento das mudanças climáticas apenas uma obrigação retórica. Deste modo, conclui-se que, sob o argumento de prover diferenciação para todos, o Acordo de Paris esvazia o significado do tratamento diferenciado dos países em desenvolvimento. Entretanto, apenas no âmbito da delegação, ou seja, dos mecanismos de cumprimento estabelecidos pelo Acordo, notadamente o balanço geral de implementação por meio de ‘naming and shaming’ que os países em desenvolvimento poderão exigir a necessária liderança dos países desenvolvidos. / In the 1970s, countries recognised as ‘developing’ began to be treated differently with regard to international agreements and doctrines that affected those countries development, following a widespread consensus among developing countries that the post-war order was unjust. As a result of political moves, developing countries have introduced such treatment in the framework of important international documents and multilateral agreements. The differentiated treatment of developing countries is expressed in international environmental law through the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capacities enshrined in the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and culminated in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Having as its object the differentiated treatment of developing countries, limited to the central obligations under the UNFCCC, this research faces how international climate agreements operated within the differentiated treatment for developing countries. The research is based on the deductive method, a structuralist and historical materialist approach to the analysis of the content of legal texts, observing the differential treatment in obligations in terms of obligation, precision and delegation. The result was that climate change is necessarily a debate on inequalities in terms of responsibility, mitigation and vulnerability. Under the claim of a more complex world, where the expression 'Third World' is replaced by the notion of 'Global South', it is stated that such framing of a North-South divide would not be more relevant, depriving the meaning of differential treatment of developing countries. However, the persistence of the North-South divide in dynamic terms points out that such differentiated treatment of the developing countries is still relevant. In order to implement the obligations of the Convention, the Kyoto Protocol - endorsed mainly by European countries - establishes a downward architecture, supported by differential norms through precise, binding and internationally agreed reduction commitments, directed primarily to developed countries. The Paris Agreement - which reflects the US strategy prior to the Convention itself - establishes an upward architecture, using contextual norms where commitments are nationally determined and thus exempt from international scrutiny. The Agreement - carefully worded - does not establish any substantive or precise binding obligation on such contributions, leaving wide scope for all countries and does not require substantive efforts from developed countries in tackling climate change. In this way, it is concluded that, under the argument of providing differentiation for all, the Paris Agreement emptied the meaning of the differential treatment of developing countries. However, only within the scope of the delegation, through compliance mechanisms established by the Agreement, notably the global stocktake through naming and shaming that developing countries may require the necessary leadership of the developed countries.

The long-term global mean temperature depends on the total amount of anthropogenic CO2 emitted. This direct link between temperature and cumulative CO2 emissions has implications for policymakers, as the cumulative emissions framework identifies the total amount of carbon that can be emitted, referred to as a cumulative carbon budget, that is consistent with reaching stabilization of the global mean temperature at desired levels, such as 1.5 °C or 2.0 °C warming above the pre-industrial level. This dissertation is a compilation of three studies that explore the relationship between warming and cumulative carbon emissions at high amounts of total carbon emitted (Project I; Chapter 2), its sensitivity to non-CO2 forcing (Project II; Chapter 3), and constraining the climate model responses with observations, in order to provide more accurate estimates of the carbon budget consistent with 1.5 °C warming above the pre-industrial level (Project III; Chapter 4). A joint summary of the key findings from each project, and their significance, is presented in Chapter 5. / Graduate / 2018-05-29

In 2015, the Paris Agreement was signed by nations all over the world. The new climate agreementwill replace previous Kyoto Protocol post-2020 and will likely change the conditions for using carbonoffsetting. It is probable that even more stringent controls will be required to ensure a credible carbon marketwhich avoids double counting and secures environmental integrity. Voluntary use of offsetting has to becompatible with the new rules set under the Paris Agreement to manage these risks. More countries will countemission reductions to their new nationally determined contributions, and therefore increases the risk ofdouble counting. Hence, the purpose of this master thesis was to reveal how the Swedish companies’ currentuse of voluntary carbon offsetting is compatible with the likely carbon market post-2020. The companiesreasons as why they use voluntary carbon offsetting, together with their underlying ethical view, based ontheir practices around carbon offsetting, were investigated. Eight qualitative semi-structured interviews withSwedish companies using voluntary carbon offsetting were conducted during February - March in 2020. Theresult was analysed through the ethical theories consequentialist and duty-based theory to understand theirunderlying ethical view in relation to their carbon offsetting. The result showed that there are two primaryreasons as why companies use voluntary carbon offsetting. The first reason is that voluntary carbon offsettingis a part of their strategy to reduce their climate impact, and the second reason is to gain the trust of customersand marketing themselves through voluntary carbon offsetting. The thesis concludes that for the companies’to best guarantee the expected outcome of their offsetting, and be compatible with the post-2020 carbonoffsetting, they should have a combination of consequentialist and duty-based underlying ethical view withstrong follow up. Furthermore, regardless of reason for using voluntary carbon offsetting, or their ethicalview towards the action, the companies may choose to move to the alternative of financially supportingthe host countries in their work to reduce their GHG emissions instead of offsetting post-2020.

Climate change is a critical threat to all the countries of the world today, not least because of the severe human rights infringements it may well lead to. However, although climate change is a collective, global challenge, there are considerable inequalities regarding contribution to cause and burden of the effects. Those suffering the most from the effects of climate change tend to be least responsible for the emissions causing it. The theoretical concept of climate justice aims to address these injustices, between different countries as well as societal groups and generations. To contribute to the understanding of how this concept is present in the global climate debate today, this thesis examines a selection of the Paris Agreement parties’ Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) from a perspective of climate justice. The analysis is based on a theoretical framework developed by Andrea Schapper, focusing on three dimensions of climate justice – international, intra-societal and intergenerational. Through this framework, a total of 36 NDCs are studied, the top and bottom three countries for each world region based on levels of cumulative CO2-emissions. The aim of the case selection has been to obtain a variation regarding development status, vulnerability to the effects of climate change, levels of greenhouse gas emissions and geographical location of the studied countries. The results of the study show that all the dimensions are present in at least some of the studied NDCs, but to a very different extent. Primarily, the parties discuss the issue of international justice. Intra-societal justice is touched upon quite frequently but very few bring up the matter of intergenerational justice. Moreover, all three dimensions are predominantly handled by countries classified as ”developing” (according to the UN statistics division).  This implies that climate justice is a higher priority for the most vulnerable to and least responsible for climate change, which is problematic for many reasons. Above all, it indicates that rich, industrialized countries are reluctant to take responsibility for their current and historical emissions, as well as the effect those emissions have on others.

1 Název práce: Mezinárodní režim ochrany klimatu ve světle závazků vybraných smluvních stran Rámcové úmluvy OSN o změně klimatu Autor práce: PhDr. Ing. Přemysl Štěpánek Školitel: Doc. PhDr. Jan Karlas, M.A., Ph.D. Pracoviště: Univerzita Karlova, Fakulta sociálních věd, Institut politologických studií, Katedra mezinárodních vztahů. Rok obhajoby: 2018 Abstract To complement the current research on countries' action in relation to global public goods, this dissertation examines the strength of UNFCCC Parties' emission commitments and the influence of selected factors derived from rationalism and constructivism on the strength of these commitments in two different contexts, under the Copenhagen Accord (2009) and the Paris Agreement (2015). Using a multiple linear regression analysis on the sample of 27 and 54 cases in the first and the second period, respectively, and as well as through case studies on three important UNFCCC Parties with a strong commitment and variance in values of the independent variables (the European Union, the Russian Federation, South Africa), the conclusions are as follows. The regression analysis in both contexts showed, in line with the assumptions, the positive influence of two factors on the strength of commitments, namely the share of alternative and nuclear energy and economic...

Climate change is the worst long-term security issue humans has ever faced. The discourse around the problems and solutions connected to it are predominantly coming from the Global North. On the other hand, it is the Global South who are experiencing the impacts of a changing climate, in the form of floods, droughts, heatwaves, and lack of food, water, and energy. This asymmetrical relationship has rendered the Global South the vulnerable subjects in the current governmentality regime of climate change. Through a governmental lens, this paper analyses the similarities and differences in how climate change as a security and IR issue is problematized, and especially what solutions are seen as viable, across and between the North-South divide. This understudied relationship and its implications, is in this paper exposed and tackled. It shows that the Global North are slowly shifting the responsibility of coping with climate change away from the large GHG emitters, and on to the individuals in the Global South that are worst affected by the consequences of a changing climate. The recently updated NDCs within the Paris agreement supports this view and make up a key part of this paper.

Denna uppsats syftar till att analysera det tänkta klimatsamarbetet mellan Sverige och Ghana som möjliggörs av Parisavtalets artikel 6. Sverige har en uttalad politisk ambition om att nå sina nationella klimatmål med hjälp av utsläppsminskningar i andra länder. Sverige och Ghana skrev under ett samförståndsavtal på COP26 i Glasgow där de deklarerar sitt intresse för samarbete i genomförandet av Parisavtalets artikel 6. Därtill har en fiktiv pilotstudie utformats för att ge exempel på vilken typ av aktivitet detta samarbete skulle kunna leda till. Genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys visar denna uppsats att samarbetet har två syften: dels att leda till reella utsläppsminskningar, dels att ta en ledande roll i hur samarbeten under artikel 6 kan utformas. Utifrån Franz Scharpfs (1999) definition av input- och outputlegitimitet, visar uppsatsen att samarbetet rymmer flera viktiga legitimitetsdimensioner som att involvera privata och statliga aktörer för att säkerställa ett transparent och rättvist samarbete som leder till reella utsläppsminskningar. Det är dock oklart hur ansvar från de olika aktörerna ska kunna utkrävas och hur Sverige kommer använda sig av utsläppsreduktionerna för att nå sitt 2045-mål om nettonollutsläp / This thesis aims to examine the proposed climate cooperation between Sweden and Ghana under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. Sweden has expressed a political ambition to achieve its climate goals through emission reductions beyond its borders. Sweden and Ghana signed a Memorandum of Understanding in November 2021 during COP26 in Glasgow, in which they express an interest in cooperating for the implementation of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement. In addition, a virtual pilot study has been developed proposing the type of activity this cooperation could generate. Through a qualitative content analysis, the thesis shows that the cooperation has two objectives: firstly, to lead to real emission reductions and secondly, to set an example for how cooperation under Article 6 can be carried out. Based on Franz Scharpf’s (1999) conception of input and output legitimacy, the thesis also demonstrates that the cooperation contains several important legitimacy dimensions such as involving private and public actors to ensure a transparent and just process with real mitigation outcomes. However, it remains unclear how this will ensure the accountability of all actors and how Sweden will use the project to achieve its 2045 net-zero emissions goal.

The Paris Agreement was introduced in 2015 with the purpose to actualize a more sustainablefuture and diminish the effects of climate change, caused by mankind. Since its establishment,the Paris Agreement has induced actions over the globe with consequences to last for centuries. In developing countries, the confrontation of climate change in reference to the development ofthe economies is especially challenging. This study aims to scrutinize the requirements andopportunities of ensuring sustainable energy in a developing country by increasing the degree ofrenewable energy as an alternative to fossil fuels in the energy mix. The study provides an updated perspective on the ongoing transition of renewable energyresources in developing countries by synthesizing the findings of multiple studies, including asystematic literature review and a case study. The main findings of this dissertation are that political and economic attributes are vital concerning the attainability of renewable energy resources in developing countries where technological aspects, such as infrastructure or degree of innovation, acts as foundation for the development. Additionally, it is the belief that there is significant gain in understanding social attributes further. Lastly, the thesis discusses the effectiveness of the Paris Agreement and its contribution to mitigating the effects of climate change. / Parisavtalet introducerades under 2015 med syfte för förändring mot en hållbar framtid samtminska mänsklighetens påverkan på klimatet. Sen dess har Parisavtalet lett till ytterligare initiativ med långsiktiga effekter världen över. I utvecklingsländer är arbetet mot klimatpåverkan i samband med ländernas ekonomiska utveckling synnerligen utmanande. Denna studie syftar tillatt studera kraven och möjligheterna som följer säkerställandet av tillgången till hållbar energi i utvecklingsländer genom att utöka graden av förnybara energikällor som alternativ till fossilabränslen i landets energimix.Studien ger ett uppdaterat perspektiv av den pågående övergången till förnybara energikällor iutvecklingsländer genom att sammankoppla upptäckter från ett flertal studier, nämligen en systematisk litteraturstudie och en fallstudie. Uppsatsens huvudsakliga upptäckter är att politiska och ekonomiska egenskaper är vitala förtillväxten av förnyelsebar energi i utvecklingsländer där tekniska aspekter såsom infrastruktur och innovation står som grund i förändringen. Likaså, tros det finns signifikanta fördelar av att studera de tillhörande sociala egenskaperna ytterligare. Dessutom diskuterar uppsatsen huruvida Parisavtalet är effektivt i att minska klimatpåverkan.

The private sector has an increasingly important role in limiting the temperature rise to below the crucial 1.5°C of the Paris Agreement. In order to assess how well a portfolio is aligned to the goals of the Paris Agreement, benchmarks need be used. The creation of benchmarks is complex and varying methodologies with associated opinions exist. The purpose of this thesis is to examine two different approaches for creating benchmarks; Single scenario and Warming function. The usability of the benchmarks is examined from the perspective of a financial institution. The methodology is based on a literature review of earlier research. Using empirical data the different methods are tested in a smaller Case study and on a larger data set. The results give insights in different advantages and disadvantages of the methods. Using a Single scenario approach allows for a more granular analysis, however it is criticized for being misleading as the result is easily manipulated. The Warming function is less granular, as almost all companies in the empirical data are assessed against the same benchmark - creating unfair results for companies active in sectors with different demands on emission reduction. In order to gain sectoral granularity the Warming function methodology need to be investigated further. By lowering the demands on the final benchmarks, the adaptation to different sectors can increase inthe Warming function approach. / Den privata sektorn har en växande roll i kampen för att begränsa den globala uppvärmningen till Parisavtalets kritiska gräns på 1,5°C. För att utvärdera hur väl ett företag presterar klimatmässigt jämfört med kraven i Parisavtalet behövs jämförelsemått. Skapandet av jämförelsemått är komplext och en mängd olika metodologier existerar med olika grader av popularitet. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka två olika tillvägagångssätt för att skapa jämförelsemått; Single scenario och Warming function. Användarbarheten av metodologierna utvärderas från perspektivet av en finansiell institution. Metodologin baseras på en litteraturstudie av tidigare undersökningar. Warming function och Single scenario utvärderas i en mindre fallstudie och i tester på ett större data set med hjälp av empiriska data. Resultatet ger insikter i olika för- och nackdelar med metoderna. Att använda Single scenario tillåter en mer granulär analys, dock kritiseras denna metod för att vara missledande då de slutgiltiga resultaten är enkla att manipulera. Warming functio när mindre granulär då de flesta företagen utvärderas mot samma jämförelsemått vilket skapar orättvisa resultat för företag som är aktiva i sektorer med olika höga krav på utsläppsminskning. För att öka granulariteten måste metodologin för Warming function undersökas djupare. Genom att sänka kraven på de slutgiltiga jämförelsemåtten kan sektoranpassade jämförelsemått öka i Warming function.

<p dir="ltr">This thesis investigated the international trade dynamics of wood pellets within the context of renewable energy transitions amid climate change concerns. In the first chapter, by employing gravity models with different estimators and specifications, we analyzed the determinants of trade flows of wood pellets. Additionally, we forecasted the future trade values of wood pellets under five shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP) scenarios. Our results showed the effects of some factors such as GDP of exporters, contiguity, and the distance between the two trading countries, were consistent with the economic theory. On the other hand, some other factors exhibited unexpected effects or conflicting results across the models. Regarding projections under five SSP scenarios, our results indicated substantial growth in trade flows, although potential overestimations are acknowledged due to the imposed assumptions. SSP3, which reflects a nationalistic scenario, is projected to have the smallest trade flows, while SSP5 anticipates the highest trade flows due to diminishing inequality and high GDP growth. Also, regional shifts in trade patterns were forecasted, with East Asia and Southeast Asia gaining prominence in imports and exports, respectively. Conversely, Europe’s imports and exports as well as North America’s exports are expected to decrease their shares in the global trade. Overall, our findings emphasize the complexity of trade determinants and underscore the need for nuanced forecasting methodologies to anticipate future trade dynamics accurately amidst evolving global scenarios of wood pellet trade.</p><p dir="ltr">The second chapter evaluated the effects of the Paris Agreement on the international trade of wood pellets. The growing concern about climate change has encouraged the global communities to take actions toward climate-change mitigation. As a form of such efforts, the Paris Agreement was signed in 2015 by 196 parties around the world and went into force in 2016. As a means to mitigate climate change, wood pellets have been used as fuels alternative to fossil fuels. Traditionally, Europe was the primary importer of wood pellets, mostly sourced from the United States and Canada. In the last decade, there has also been a significant uptake in East Asia, indicating shifting trade patterns and market dynamics in the wood pellet industry. This study employed an event-study framework to analyze the impact of the Paris Agreement on the global trade of wood pellets from 2014 to 2019, using import and export data at the regional level. Our results revealed distinct patterns in responses to the Paris Agreement in terms of adjustment speed and magnitude. Europe exhibited a rapid increase in both imports and exports immediately after the Paris Agreement. East Asia demonstrated a delayed yet substantial rise in imports, particularly after 2018. North America also swiftly expanded exports, following the agreement, while Southeast Asia emerged as an important exporter, particularly in supporting the East Asian market from 2017 onwards. We also found an increase in exports of non-pellet wood fuels from Africa. This finding indicates that international climate agreements not only contribute to the overall expansion of the global market of wood pellets but also reshape the market by involving more countries in international efforts to mitigate climate change.</p>