This study aimed to explore the lived experiences of expert performing musicians and the relationship between the flow and clutch optimal performance states. Five professional pianists were interviewed to gain an understanding of their experiences of optimal performance states during performance. The study took a constructivist-interpretivist approach situated in the phenomenological paradigm. It made use of multiple case studies, and data were gathered through semi-structured interviews. The data were analysed through Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), as proposed by Smith, Flower and Larkin (2009). Three superordinate themes were identified: Performance-related experiences of flow; The experience of clutch and choke during performance; and Coping skill and performance conditions, which were all discussed relative to ten subordinate themes. It was found that flow and clutch experiences in a music context are predominantly similar to those found in other contexts such as sport. Flow and clutch experiences in a musical context were shown to be distinctive from other fields due to specific task completion requirements. By comparing findings to the proposed Integrated Model of Flow and Clutch by Swann et al. (2017b, 2017c), findings show that the model adequately represents flow as an antecedent of clutch in a music context, and the results provide detailed insights on the experience of optimal performance states in expert performing musicians. The study concludes that clutch is a deeper element of flow, and these optimal performance states are experienced in many similar and distinctive ways compared to existing research in sport psychology. Various non-cognitive traits play a large role in an individual’s ability to obtain and successfully maintain flow and clutch performance states. / Dissertation (MMus (Performing Art))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / Music / MMus (Performing Art) / Unrestricted

The purpose of the present research programme was to inform the development and subsequent delivery of an intervention to enhance interpersonal emotion regulation. Although emotion regulation has been emphasised due to its importance in explaining performance and well-being, the focus of research has predominantly been on intrapersonal emotion regulation. The present study addressed the dual-gap in research by extending research in interpersonal emotion regulation in general and developing and testing theory-led interventions for use in sport. A three-stage programme of research was set up with stage one reviewing the extant literature before proposing a social-functional approach to emotions, and in particular the Emotions As Social Information (EASI) model, as possible theoretical frameworks for use in sport. Qualitative methods were emphasised as these are particularly useful in studies seeking to identify mechanisms underlying the effectiveness of interventions. Stage two began with a narrative analysis to outline the potential social functions and consequences of emotional expressions, verbalisations, and actions in ice hockey. Two ice hockey players, each captain of their respective team, participated in semi-structured interviews. Participants described how emotions informed them of important circumstances in their environment that required attention and prepared them for such challenges at the individual level. At a dyadic level, emotions helped participants understand the emotional states and intentions of their teammates contributing toward an assessment of the extent to which they were prepared to face their challenges. At a group level, emotions helped participants lead their teammates in meeting team goals. Finally, at the cultural level, emotions helped participants maintain culture-related identities. Stage two continued with examining the processes, strategies used, and potential moderating factors in interpersonal emotion regulation among 16 ice hockey players from an English professional league. An inductive and deductive analysis revealed 22 distinct strategies used to regulate teammates' emotions. These were distinguished between strategies that were verbal or behavioural in nature. They were further distinguished between strategies employed to initiate interpersonal emotion regulation through affective and cognitive channels. Moderating factors in the interpersonal emotion regulation process were consistent with the EASI model. Stage three involved the development, delivery and assessment of the intervention. A British ice hockey team was recruited and the intervention was delivered over the course of three competitive seasons. The primary intervention goal was to improve interpersonal emotion regulation as evidenced by being able to accurately identify when an emotion regulation strategy was needed, and select and use a strategy that changed emotions in the direction and strength intended (Webb, Miles, & Sheeran, 2012). Given the link between emotion and performance, it was expected that the intervention would bring about improvements in individual and team performance. Techniques to bring about change comprised of brief contact interventions, dressing room debriefs, feedback from emotional intelligence assessments, and the practitioner managing himself as an intervention tool. The merit of the intervention was judged through practitioner reflections, social validity assessments, pre- and post-intervention measures of emotional intelligence and performance. Collectively, the present research programme contributes to the emotion regulation literature not only in sport, but also in psychology in general. A key achievement of the programme has been the development of a theoretically sound but ecologically valid intervention designed to improve the interpersonal emotion regulation skills of athletes. Although the intervention primarily catered to the needs of the current team and utilised the professional philosophy of the researcher-practitioner, the intervention provides support for enhanced performance derived from theory explaining a social-functional account of emotions. Future research might use the theory and approach to testing the theory in different sports to examine the role of each sport sub-culture on interpersonal emotion regulation.

Syftet med föreliggande studie är att undersöka instrumentalpedagogers förhållningssätt till fenomenet prestationsångest i musikundervisning. Tre instrumentalpedagoger, som är eller har varit aktiva som musiker, har intervjuats utifrån forskningsmetoden kvalitativa, halvstrukturerade intervjuer. Det teoretiska perspektiv som studien baseras på är prestationspsykologi. I resultatet presenteras instrumentalpedagogernas uppfattningar om fenomenet prestationsångest, där de intervjuade lyfter fram olika aspekter och faktorer som kan ligga till grund för prestationsångest samt hur ångesten påverkar den utövande. Det andra temat aktivt engagemang och bemötande gentemot elever belyser olika undervisningsstrategier som informanterna använder sig av för att bemöta elever i hänsyn till fenomenet prestationsångest. I sista temat metoder för att förebygga prestationsångest, förklarar informanterna vilka metoder som kan användas för att motverka ångesten eller påverka dess faktorer i rätt riktning. I diskussionsavsnittet diskuteras instrumentalpedagogernas förhållningssätt till prestationsångest i musikundervisning utifrån bakgrundslitteratur, tidigare forskning och det teoretiska perspektivet prestationspsykologi. Avsnittet fokuserar på följande aspekter; prestationsbaserad självkänsla, instrumentalpedagogens och miljöns betydelse, att medvetandegöra och acceptera sin ångest samt förberedelser och mental träning. Avslutningsvis reflekterar jag över arbetets betydelse och fortsatt forskning inom ämnet. / The purpose of this study is to investigate instrumental teacher’s approach to the phenomenon of performance anxiety in music education. Three instrumental teachers, who are or who has been active as musicians, have been interviewed by the method of science qualitative, semi-structured interviews. The theoretical perspective, which the study is based on, is performance psychology. The result presents instrumental teachers views to the phenomenon of performance anxiety, whereof the interviewed emphasizes different aspects and factors, which form the basis of performance anxiety and how anxiety affect performers. The second theme active interest and treatment towards the students highlights a variety of teaching strategies, which the informants use to treat the students regarding to the phenomenon of performance anxiety. In the last theme methods to prevent performance anxiety, the informants illustrate the methods which could be used to discourage anxiety and work on the factors in a correct manner. The discussion focuses on following aspects; performance based self-esteem, the importance of teacher and environment, to raise awareness and accept any anxiety and also preparations and mental training. At last I analyze the importance of this study and further research in this topic.

For decades, elite athletes have used mental skills training to enhance their performance. The effectiveness of these skills and strategies have been measured, documented and supported in research (e.g., Feltz & Landers, 1983; Vealey, 1994). As the remarkable benefits of mental skills continue to reach an ever-growing community of performers, it is surprising that many military organizations, known for their high standards for performance and little tolerance for error, have yet to take full advantage of this type of training. Canada’s Air Force (CAF), home to a world-renowned pilot training program, now finds itself seeking additional tools to empower pilots to achieve consistent, high quality performance under demanding, high stress conditions. The purpose of this research was to explore the psychological skills used by elite Canadian military pilots to perform successfully in this highly demanding occupation. Sixteen in-depth interviews were conducted with elite Canadian pilots at a CAF base in Saskatchewan. Results indicated that pilots utilized all seven elements of Orlick’s (2008) Wheel of Excellence over three phases of flight: pre-flight preparation, mission execution, and post-flight debriefs. Pilots also drew on elements of the Wheel of Excellence during deployments to combat zones. Effective stress management played an especially important role in this context. Recommendations for future research include mental skills usage and preparation specific to deployment contexts as well as the implementation of a specific, relevant mental skills training program within the existing CAF pilot training program

For decades, elite athletes have used mental skills training to enhance their performance. The effectiveness of these skills and strategies have been measured, documented and supported in research (e.g., Feltz & Landers, 1983; Vealey, 1994). As the remarkable benefits of mental skills continue to reach an ever-growing community of performers, it is surprising that many military organizations, known for their high standards for performance and little tolerance for error, have yet to take full advantage of this type of training. Canada’s Air Force (CAF), home to a world-renowned pilot training program, now finds itself seeking additional tools to empower pilots to achieve consistent, high quality performance under demanding, high stress conditions. The purpose of this research was to explore the psychological skills used by elite Canadian military pilots to perform successfully in this highly demanding occupation. Sixteen in-depth interviews were conducted with elite Canadian pilots at a CAF base in Saskatchewan. Results indicated that pilots utilized all seven elements of Orlick’s (2008) Wheel of Excellence over three phases of flight: pre-flight preparation, mission execution, and post-flight debriefs. Pilots also drew on elements of the Wheel of Excellence during deployments to combat zones. Effective stress management played an especially important role in this context. Recommendations for future research include mental skills usage and preparation specific to deployment contexts as well as the implementation of a specific, relevant mental skills training program within the existing CAF pilot training program

For decades, elite athletes have used mental skills training to enhance their performance. The effectiveness of these skills and strategies have been measured, documented and supported in research (e.g., Feltz & Landers, 1983; Vealey, 1994). As the remarkable benefits of mental skills continue to reach an ever-growing community of performers, it is surprising that many military organizations, known for their high standards for performance and little tolerance for error, have yet to take full advantage of this type of training. Canada’s Air Force (CAF), home to a world-renowned pilot training program, now finds itself seeking additional tools to empower pilots to achieve consistent, high quality performance under demanding, high stress conditions. The purpose of this research was to explore the psychological skills used by elite Canadian military pilots to perform successfully in this highly demanding occupation. Sixteen in-depth interviews were conducted with elite Canadian pilots at a CAF base in Saskatchewan. Results indicated that pilots utilized all seven elements of Orlick’s (2008) Wheel of Excellence over three phases of flight: pre-flight preparation, mission execution, and post-flight debriefs. Pilots also drew on elements of the Wheel of Excellence during deployments to combat zones. Effective stress management played an especially important role in this context. Recommendations for future research include mental skills usage and preparation specific to deployment contexts as well as the implementation of a specific, relevant mental skills training program within the existing CAF pilot training program

Thesis (M.A.) - Carleton University, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 42-46). Also available in electronic format on the Internet.

For decades, elite athletes have used mental skills training to enhance their performance. The effectiveness of these skills and strategies have been measured, documented and supported in research (e.g., Feltz & Landers, 1983; Vealey, 1994). As the remarkable benefits of mental skills continue to reach an ever-growing community of performers, it is surprising that many military organizations, known for their high standards for performance and little tolerance for error, have yet to take full advantage of this type of training. Canada’s Air Force (CAF), home to a world-renowned pilot training program, now finds itself seeking additional tools to empower pilots to achieve consistent, high quality performance under demanding, high stress conditions. The purpose of this research was to explore the psychological skills used by elite Canadian military pilots to perform successfully in this highly demanding occupation. Sixteen in-depth interviews were conducted with elite Canadian pilots at a CAF base in Saskatchewan. Results indicated that pilots utilized all seven elements of Orlick’s (2008) Wheel of Excellence over three phases of flight: pre-flight preparation, mission execution, and post-flight debriefs. Pilots also drew on elements of the Wheel of Excellence during deployments to combat zones. Effective stress management played an especially important role in this context. Recommendations for future research include mental skills usage and preparation specific to deployment contexts as well as the implementation of a specific, relevant mental skills training program within the existing CAF pilot training program

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Driven by the need to inform evidence-based intervention strategies for performance and health promotion in esports, this thesis aimed to provide a starting point for future research on esports and, in particular, psychophysiological stress in esports. To this end, this work began by addressing why and how sport and exercise psychology could research esports. Following this, a systematic review of the literature on stress in non-competitive and competitive esports was performed. The results indicated that playing esports in competitive settings–in contrast to non-competitive settings–seems to be related to psychophysiological stress responses, and also highlighted a number of theoretical and methodological limitations with research in this area. To build on this initial understanding of stress in esports, a qualitative study was conducted that explored the subjective experiences of professional players. Here, a variety of stressors, perceived stress responses, and coping strategies were identified. To complete the work, a different perspective and approach was taken, using an online questionnaire to investigate perceived performance factors and stress management strategies utilized by sport psychologists and performance coaches in esports. Overall, this work provided a number of implications for future research and applied practice that are addressed in this thesis.:Table of Content Abstract I Zusammenfassung II General Comments III List of Own Articles IV Table of Tables V Table of Figures VI Table of Content VII 1 Introduction 1 2 Esports 3 2.1 Demands 6 2.1.1 Environmental Related Profile 6 2.1.2 Sport Psychology Profile 10 3 Psychophysiological Stress 15 3.1 Interaction, Transaction, and Relational Meaning 15 3.2 Stressors and Appraisal 16 3.3 Coping 17 3.4 Stress Response 18 3.5 Theoretical Models 19 4 Psychophysiological Stress in Esports 22 5 Research Program 24 6 Article I: The Potential Role of Sport and Exercise Psychology in Researching Esports 26 6.1 Abstract 27 6.2 Introduction 28 6.3 Why Sport and Exercise Psychology Could Research Esports 30 6.3.1 Effects of Playing Esports 30 6.3.2 Benefiting Theory and Human Expertise 31 6.3.3 Interdisciplinary Research 32 6.3.4 Informing Evidence-Based Interventions 32 6.3.5 Teaching 33 6.3.6 Not Chasing Research Funding 34 6.4 How Sport and Exercise Psychology Could Research Esports 34 6.6 Conclusion 38 6.7 References 40 7 Article II: State of Research on Psychophysiological Stress in Esports 48 7.1 Abstract 49 7.2 Introduction 50 7.2.1 Stress 51 7.2.2 Theoretical Models of Human Competition 51 7.2.3 Model of Neuroendocrine and Mood Responses To a Competitive Situation 52 7.2.4 Empirical Evidence 53 7.2.5 Purpose of the Study 54 7.3 Methods 56 7.3.1 Protocol and Eligibility Criteria 56 7.3.2 Information Sources and Search Strategy 57 7.3.3 Data Analysis 58 7.4 Results 58 7.4.1 Study Selection 58 7.4.2 Study Characteristics 59 7.4.3 Psychological Stress in Esports 63 7.4.4 Physiological Stress in Esports 64 7.4.5 Risk of Bias Within Studies 68 7.5 Discussion 76 7.5.1 Summary of Evidence 76 7.5.2 Is Playing Esports Games in Non-Competitive Settings Related To Psychological and/or Physiological Stress? 77 7.5.3 Is Playing Esports in Competitive Settings Related To Psychological and/or Physiological Stress? 78 7.5.4 Limitations 81 7.6 Conclusion 84 7.7 References 87 8 Article III: The Subjective Experience of Stress and Coping in Esports 100 8.1 Abstract 101 8.2 Introduction 102 8.2.1 Transactional Theory of Stress 102 8.2.2 Empirical Evidence 103 8.3 Method 106 8.3.1 Situating the Researchers 106 8.3.2 Participants 107 8.3.3 Procedures 107 8.3.4 Interview Guide 108 8.3.5 Data Analysis 109 8.4 Results 110 8.4.1 Stressors 110 8.4.2 Perceived Stress Responses 114 8.4.3 Coping Strategies 116 8.5 Discussion 119 8.5.1 Stressors 120 8.5.2 Perceived Stress Responses 120 8.5.3 Coping Strategies 122 8.5.4 Limitations 123 8.5.5 Future Research 124 8.5.6 Practical Implications 125 8.5.7 Conclusion 126 8.6 References 128 9 Article IV: Insights on the Applied Sport Psychology in Esports 138 9.1 Abstract 139 9.2 Introduction 140 9.2.1 Sport Psychological Counselling 141 9.2.2 The Present Study 143 9.3 Method 143 9.3.1 Participants 144 9.3.2 Data Collection 145 9.3.3 Instrument 146 9.3.4 Data Analysis 147 9.4 Results 147 9.4.1 Factors Negatively Impacting Performance 147 9.4.2 Stress Management Strategies 148 9.5 Discussion 149 9.5.1 Factors Negatively Impacting Performance 149 9.5.2 Stress Management Strategies 150 9.5.3 Limitations 152 9.5.4 Future Research 153 9.5.5 Practical Implications 154 9.5.6 Conclusion 155 9.6 References 158 10 General Discussion 167 10.1 The Potential Role of Sport and Exercise Psychology in Researching Esports 167 10.2 Research on Psychophysiological Stress in Esports 169 10.2.1 Stressors 169 10.2.2 Coping Strategies 170 10.2.3 Psychological and Physiological Stress Responses 171 10.3 Limitations 173 10.4 Future Research 173 11 Conclusion 178 Acknowledgements 180 References 181 Curriculum Vitae XII Appendices XII Appendix A: Information and Consent Form XII Appendix B: Interview Guide XIV Appendix C: Online Questionnaire XVI Appendix D: Project on Psychophysiological Stress in Esports XVIII / Ausgehend von der Notwendigkeit evidenzbasierter Interventionsstrategien zur Leistungs- und Gesundheitsförderung im E-Sport, zielt diese Arbeit darauf ab, einen Ausgangspunkt für zukünftige Forschung im E-Sport und insbesondere zu psychophysiologischen Stress im E-Sport zu schaffen. In einem ersten Schritt wird deshalb untersucht, warum und wie die Sport- und Bewegungspsychologie den E-Sport erforschen kann. Des Weiteren wird mit Hilfe eines systematischen Literaturreviews die bisherige Forschung zu Stress im kompetitiven und nicht-kompetitiven E-Sport dargestellt. Während die Ergebnisse, entgegen des nicht-kompetitiven Spielens, auf eine Verbindung zwischen dem kompetitiven Spielen und psychophysiologischen Stressreaktionen hinweisen, werden theoretische und methodische Limitationen bisheriger Forschung diskutiert. Basierend auf diesem ersten Verständnis von Stress im E-Sport, wird durch semi-strukturierte Interviews das subjektive Erleben von professionellen Spielern untersucht. Dabei zeigt sich eine Vielzahl von Stressoren, wahrgenommenen Stressreaktionen und Bewältigungsstrategien. Schließlich wird mit Hilfe eines Online-Fragebogens eine weitere Perspektive berücksichtigt, um die wahrgenommenen Leistungsfaktoren und die von Sportpsychologen, Sportpsychologinnen und Performance Coaches angewandten Stressregulationstechniken zu identifizieren. Insgesamt werden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine Reihe von Implikationen für zukünftige Forschung und die angewandte Praxis aufgezeigt.:Table of Content Abstract I Zusammenfassung II General Comments III List of Own Articles IV Table of Tables V Table of Figures VI Table of Content VII 1 Introduction 1 2 Esports 3 2.1 Demands 6 2.1.1 Environmental Related Profile 6 2.1.2 Sport Psychology Profile 10 3 Psychophysiological Stress 15 3.1 Interaction, Transaction, and Relational Meaning 15 3.2 Stressors and Appraisal 16 3.3 Coping 17 3.4 Stress Response 18 3.5 Theoretical Models 19 4 Psychophysiological Stress in Esports 22 5 Research Program 24 6 Article I: The Potential Role of Sport and Exercise Psychology in Researching Esports 26 6.1 Abstract 27 6.2 Introduction 28 6.3 Why Sport and Exercise Psychology Could Research Esports 30 6.3.1 Effects of Playing Esports 30 6.3.2 Benefiting Theory and Human Expertise 31 6.3.3 Interdisciplinary Research 32 6.3.4 Informing Evidence-Based Interventions 32 6.3.5 Teaching 33 6.3.6 Not Chasing Research Funding 34 6.4 How Sport and Exercise Psychology Could Research Esports 34 6.6 Conclusion 38 6.7 References 40 7 Article II: State of Research on Psychophysiological Stress in Esports 48 7.1 Abstract 49 7.2 Introduction 50 7.2.1 Stress 51 7.2.2 Theoretical Models of Human Competition 51 7.2.3 Model of Neuroendocrine and Mood Responses To a Competitive Situation 52 7.2.4 Empirical Evidence 53 7.2.5 Purpose of the Study 54 7.3 Methods 56 7.3.1 Protocol and Eligibility Criteria 56 7.3.2 Information Sources and Search Strategy 57 7.3.3 Data Analysis 58 7.4 Results 58 7.4.1 Study Selection 58 7.4.2 Study Characteristics 59 7.4.3 Psychological Stress in Esports 63 7.4.4 Physiological Stress in Esports 64 7.4.5 Risk of Bias Within Studies 68 7.5 Discussion 76 7.5.1 Summary of Evidence 76 7.5.2 Is Playing Esports Games in Non-Competitive Settings Related To Psychological and/or Physiological Stress? 77 7.5.3 Is Playing Esports in Competitive Settings Related To Psychological and/or Physiological Stress? 78 7.5.4 Limitations 81 7.6 Conclusion 84 7.7 References 87 8 Article III: The Subjective Experience of Stress and Coping in Esports 100 8.1 Abstract 101 8.2 Introduction 102 8.2.1 Transactional Theory of Stress 102 8.2.2 Empirical Evidence 103 8.3 Method 106 8.3.1 Situating the Researchers 106 8.3.2 Participants 107 8.3.3 Procedures 107 8.3.4 Interview Guide 108 8.3.5 Data Analysis 109 8.4 Results 110 8.4.1 Stressors 110 8.4.2 Perceived Stress Responses 114 8.4.3 Coping Strategies 116 8.5 Discussion 119 8.5.1 Stressors 120 8.5.2 Perceived Stress Responses 120 8.5.3 Coping Strategies 122 8.5.4 Limitations 123 8.5.5 Future Research 124 8.5.6 Practical Implications 125 8.5.7 Conclusion 126 8.6 References 128 9 Article IV: Insights on the Applied Sport Psychology in Esports 138 9.1 Abstract 139 9.2 Introduction 140 9.2.1 Sport Psychological Counselling 141 9.2.2 The Present Study 143 9.3 Method 143 9.3.1 Participants 144 9.3.2 Data Collection 145 9.3.3 Instrument 146 9.3.4 Data Analysis 147 9.4 Results 147 9.4.1 Factors Negatively Impacting Performance 147 9.4.2 Stress Management Strategies 148 9.5 Discussion 149 9.5.1 Factors Negatively Impacting Performance 149 9.5.2 Stress Management Strategies 150 9.5.3 Limitations 152 9.5.4 Future Research 153 9.5.5 Practical Implications 154 9.5.6 Conclusion 155 9.6 References 158 10 General Discussion 167 10.1 The Potential Role of Sport and Exercise Psychology in Researching Esports 167 10.2 Research on Psychophysiological Stress in Esports 169 10.2.1 Stressors 169 10.2.2 Coping Strategies 170 10.2.3 Psychological and Physiological Stress Responses 171 10.3 Limitations 173 10.4 Future Research 173 11 Conclusion 178 Acknowledgements 180 References 181 Curriculum Vitae XII Appendices XII Appendix A: Information and Consent Form XII Appendix B: Interview Guide XIV Appendix C: Online Questionnaire XVI Appendix D: Project on Psychophysiological Stress in Esports XVIII