Mecanismos redox estão envolvidos em diversos processos, como sobrevivência, proliferação e diferenciação celular, pela modulação da atividade de quinases, fosfatases e fatores de transcrição, entre outros, através da modificação oxidativa e reversível de resíduos de cisteína. Neste trabalho, nós estudamos processos redox subjacentes a diferenciação osteogênica induzida por BMP2, utilizando linhagens de células MC3T3-E1. Nosso objetivo foi investigar modificações redox como possíveis moduladores do processo de diferenciação osteogênica. Para isso, nós primeiramente caracterizamos a diferenciação osteogênica nas células MC3T3-E1 após o tratamento com BMP2, através da expressão do marcador osteogênico Osteocalcina, da fosforilação do complexo Smad 1/5/8 e da deposição de matriz extracelular calcificada. Análises de expressão gênica por qPCR mostraram que o tratamento com BMP2 resultou no aumento de expressão de NOX4, o que provavelmente leva ao aumento na produção de peróxido de hidrogênio intracelular. Nós investigamos também a modulação de peroxiredoxinas nesse processo e análises de expressão gênica mostraram que não há alterações nos níveis de expressão de Prx1 e 2 durante a diferenciação, mas os ensaios de western blot redox indicam que a Prx1 pode ser oxidada após o tratamento com BMP2, de maneira dose dependente. Outras análises in vitro mostram que células expostas a N-acetilcisteína (NAC) e PEG-catalase apresentam diferenciação osteogênica prejudicada, detectada por baixos níveis de deposição de matriz extracelular calcificada, comparado com células não-tratadas. Além disso, a fosforilação de Smad 1/5/8 são reduzidas nessas condições. Nossos dados sugerem que processos redox podem modular a sinalização celular durante o processo de diferenciação osteogência / Redox mechanisms are involved in several processes, such as cell survival, proliferation and differentiation, among other ways by modulating kinases, phosphatases and transcription factors activity that can occur through reversible and oxidative modification of cysteine residues. We were interested in studying redox processes underlying osteogenic differentiation induced by BMP-2, using MC3T3-E1 cell lineage. Our objective was to investigate redox modifications as possible modulators of the osteogenic differentiation process. We first characterized osteogenic differentiation in MC3T3-E1 cells upon BMP2 treatment, through gene expression of the osteogenic marker Osteocalcin, Smad 1/5/8 (belonging to the BMP-2 pathway) protein phosphorylation and extracellular matrix calcification. Gene expression analysis by qPCR showed that BMP2 treatment resulted in NOX4 upregulation, which probably also leads to hydrogen peroxide production. We have investigated peroxiredoxin modulation in this process, and gene expression analysis shows no significant change in peroxiredoxin 1 and 2 expression levels, but redox western blotting assays indicate that Prx1 can be oxidized after BMP2 treatment, in a dose dependent manner. In vitro analysis shows that cells exposed to N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC) and PEG-catalase display impaired osteogenic differentiation, detected by lower levels of calcified extracellular matrix deposition compared with non-treated cells. Moreover, phosphorylation of Smad 1/5/8 complex is reduced under these redox treatments. Our data suggest that redox pathways can modulate cell signaling during the osteogenic differentiation process

Malignant mesothelioma (MM) is a rare tumor associated with occupational exposure to asbestos with no effective treatment regime. Evaluation of mitochondrial function in human MM cell lines revealed a common tumor phenotype: in comparison to immortalized or primary human mesothelial cells, MM tumor cells displayed a more oxidized mitochondrial environment, increased expression of mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes, and altered mitochondrial metabolism. Earlier work by our laboratory indicated that increases in mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) in MM cell lines supports expression of FOXM1, an oncogenic transcription factor that contributes to increased cell proliferation and chemoresistance. These studies sought to investigate targeting of mitochondrial structure and function as a therapeutic avenue in MM. MM cells have reduced mitochondrial reserve capacity, a redox vulnerability exploitable by pro-oxidant therapeutics. Targeting of the mitochondrial peroxidase peroxiredoxin 3 (PRX3) with the anti-cancer compound thiostrepton (TS) induces irreversible modifications to PRX3 protein, increased mROS, and selective MM cell death. Mass spectrometry showed TS targets conserved cysteine residues in PRX3. In vitro and in MM cells, TS failed to modify human PRX3 harboring mutations to Cys108, Cys127 or Cys229. Pre-incubation of MM cells with dimedone blocked cysteine adduction of PRX3 by TS, suggesting adduction requires an active PRX3 catalytic cycle. Studies with immortalized and primary human mesothelial cells showed adduction of PRX3 by TS occurred at a much lower rate in normal cells than MM cells, and this difference correlated with markedly decreased cytotoxicity. Moreover, MM cells transduced with shRNA to PRX3 grew more slowly and were less sensitive to TS than their wild type counterparts, indicating PRX3 is a major target of TS in MM cells. Studies with a xenoplant mouse model of MM showed TS alone or in combination with the TRX2 inhibitor gentian violet significantly reduced tumor volume. Tumor cell mitochondria have an increased mitochondrial membrane potential, therefore numerous drugs have been developed that selectively accumulatte into energized mitochondria to enhance drug efficacy and specificity. Here two mitochondrial-targeted nitroxides, Mito-carboxy-proxyl (MCP) and Mito-TEMPOL (MT), were investigated for their anti-cancer effects. Treatment of MM cells with MCP or MT led to rapid disruption of the mitochondrial reticulum, increased oxidant levels, and reduced FOXM1 and PRX3 protein expression. Immunostaining revealed a pool of cytoplasmic FOXM1 associated with PRX3 in mitochondria, suggesting PRX3 participates in regulating FOXM1 expression. Combination of MCP or MT with TS led to synergistic effects on MM cell viability. Upregulation of mitochondrial antioxidant enzymes is an adaptive response that ameliorates mitochondrial oxidative stress and supports tumor cell survival. Studies here indicate that enhanced dependency on the PRX3 catalytic cycle in tumor cells promotes inactivation of PRX3 by TS, providing a therapeutic window dependent on a mitochondrial phenotype common to many human tumor types. Therefore TS, alone or in combination with other agents, may prove useful in the management of intractable tumors such as MM.

Dementia causes an increasing social and economic burden worldwide, demanding action regarding its diagnosis, treatment and everyday management. Recent years have seen many advances in neurodegeneration research, but the search for new truly disease modifying therapies for Alzheimer's disease (AD) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD) has so far not been successful. This is mainly due to a lack of understanding of the precise intracellular events that lead up to neuronal dysfunction in early and in late stages of the disease. This thesis describes the approaches taken to extend the current knowledge about the intracellular effects of neuronal amyloid-beta and the signalling pathways causing neuronal death or disturbed synaptic function in dementia. Endophilin-1(Ep-1), amyloid-binding alcohol dehydrogenase (ABAD), peroxiredoxin-2 (Prx-2) and the EF-hand domain family, member D2 (EFHD2) have been found to be elevated in the human brain with dementia and in mouse models for frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD) or AD. The expression of these proteins as well as the expression of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), c-Jun and APP were analysed by western blotting and real-time PCR in human brains affected by AD or FTLD as well as in mouse models for AD. This provided a new insight into the regulation of these proteins in relation to each other in the ageing brain and uncovered a new potential link between elevated levels of EFHD2, Prx-2 and APP in FTLD. By studying the effects of the overexpression of Ep-1 in neurons, this research has led to a better understanding of its role in JNK-activation. It furthermore verified a protective role for Prx-2 against neurotoxicity and pointed towards a new function for Prx-2 in the regulation of JNK-signalling. The analysis of the effect of increased levels of EFHD2 uncovered for the first time its involvement in the PI3K-signalling cascade in neuronal cells. The current work has therefore contributed to the knowledge about the cellular processes that are affected by Ep-1, Prx-2 and EFHD2 in different types of dementia and will greatly benefit future research into their actions in the neuronal network.

As bactérias são reconhecidas pelos macrófagos através dos receptores do tipo Toll (TLR), que ativam as vias do NF-κB e das MAPKs, resultando em respostas como a fagocitose e a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio e nitrogênio (ROS/RNS), que causam a morte do microrganismo. P. aeruginosa, uma causa comum de pneumonia associada à ventilação mecânica, é uma bactéria que utiliza diversas estratégias de virulência e defesa, incluindo mecanismos antioxidantes. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a relação entre o papel da 1-Cys peroxirredoxina LsfA está envolvida na virulência de P. aeruginosa. Linhagens mutantes com deleção em lsfA ou com uma mutação pontual neste gene (troca da Cys45 por Ala, RB302) foram construídas, sendo mais sensíveis a peróxido de hidrogênio que a linhagem selvagem PA14, como verificado pelo halo de inibição de crescimento. A atividade peroxidásica de LsfA foi medida in vitro pelo ensaio de tiocianato férrico e apenas a proteína com a sequência selvagem foi ativa, enquanto uma mutação na Cys45 aboliu completamente a sua atividade. Infecção de macrófagos J774 com as linhagens ΔlsfA ou C45A resultaram em uma diminuição da morte dos macrófagos, aumento do clearance bacteriano e aumento da secreção de TNF-α em comparação aos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem PA14, sugerindo uma maior ativação das vias do NF-κB e das MAPKs nos macrófagos infectados com as linhagens mutantes. Para verificar se LsfA poderia alterar o estado oxidativo dos macrófagos, eles foram infectados com as linhagens PA14 ou RB302 (C45A) e incubadas com carbóxi-H2DCFDA, um indicador que se torna fluorescente quando oxidado. Macrófagos infectados com a linhagem mutante demonstraram um maior estado oxidativo em comparação aos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem selvagem, confirmando que LsfA limita a ativação dos macrófagos, resultando numa menor produção de TNF-α e diminuição da citotoxicidade. A via das MAPKs e do NF-κB são requeridos para a produção máxima de TNF-α nos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem RB302, o que foi demonstrado utilizando-se de inibidores farmacológicos para essas vias. Como esperado, quando os macrófagos foram infectados com a linhagem RB302 na presença do antioxidante N-acetil-cisteína, houve uma redução da produção de TNF-α a níveis semelhantes dos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem selvagem. Em modelo de pneumonia aguda, todos os camundongos infectados com a linhagem PA14 morreram 48h pós-infecção, enquanto os camundongos infectados com a linhagem RB302 sobreviveram por mais de 60 dias após a infecção. Houve uma redução do número de bactérias nos pulmões, baço e fígado nos camundongos infectados com a linhagem RB302 em comparação aos camundongos infectados com a linhagem PA14. Também foi observado um aumento na produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias nos camundongos infectados com a linhagem RB302 em comparação aos camundongos infectados com PA14. Com isso, foi demonstrado pela primeira vez o envolvimento de uma 1-Cys peroxirredoxina de bactérias na virulência, com a modulação da resposta imune do hospedeiro in vitro e in vivo. / Bacteria are recognized by macrophages via Toll-Like Receptors (TLR), leading to a signaling pathway that activates NF-κB and MAPKs. Killing in phagossomes is achieved by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) generation. P. aeruginosa is a common cause of ventilator associated pneumonia and it uses several strategies for virulence and defense, including antioxidant mechanisms. In this work, we show for the first time that the 1-Cys peroxiredoxin LsfA is implicated in P. aeruginosa virulence. Mutant strains with a deletion in lsfA or with a mutation (Cys45 to Ala, RB302) were constructed and they were more sensitive to H2O2 than the wild type strain PA14, as verified by a growth inhibition assay. In vitro peroxidasic activity of LsfA was measured by ferric-thiocyanate assay, and while the wild-type protein was active, the mutation in Cys45 abolished its activity. Infection of J774 macrophages with ΔlsfA or C45A strains resulted in lower cell death, increased bacterial clearance and higher TNF-α production in comparison to PA14-infected macrophages, suggesting a higher level of MAPKs and NF-κB activation due to the mutant strains. To verify whether LsfA could modify the oxidative state of infected macrophages, they were infected with PA14 or RB302 strains and incubated with carboxy-H2DCFDA, an indicator that emits fluorescence when oxidized. Macrophages infected with mutant strains showed a higher oxidative state in comparison to PA14-infected cells, thus confirming that LsfA limits macrophages activation that leads to TNF-α production and cytotoxic activity. MAPKs and NF-κB pathways are required to full production of TNF-α in macrophages infected with RB302, as shown using pharmacological inhibitors for those pathways. When macrophages were infected with RB302 in the presence of the antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine, there was a reduction in TNF-α production as compared to PA14, as expected. In an acute pneumonia model, all PA14-infected mice died at 48h post-infection, while C45A-infected mice survived as long as 60 days. There was also reduction in bacterial counts in the lungs, spleen and liver of mice infected with RB302, in comparison to PA14-infected mice. A greater pro-inflammatory cytokine production was observed in mice infected with mutant strain in comparison to mice infected with PA14. Altogether, this work shows for the first time the role of a bacterial 1-Cys Prx that modulates host immune response in vitro and in vivo.

Les peroxyrédoxines (Prx) sont des peroxydases à thiol, ubiquitaires, qui jouent un rôle central dans la physiologie du peroxyde d’hydrogène. Une famille de Prx dite "2-Cys-Prx typique" possède une propriété unique de suroxydation de la Cys catalytique sous forme acide sulfinique, qui constitue un mécanisme de régulation des fonctions des 2-Cys-Prx typiques en tant que peroxydase, capteur de peroxyde ou protéine chaperon. La réduction des 2-Cys-Prx typiques suroxydées est catalysée par la Sulfirédoxine (Srx), une sulfinyl réductase ATP-dépendante dont la constante catalytique est de l’ordre de 1-2 min-1, une valeur faible qui doit être corrélée au rôle de Srx dans la régulation redox. L’objectif de ce travail était d’analyser l’enzymologie de la régulation du système Prx/Srx au niveau, du processus de suroxydation des 2-Cys-Prx typiques, de l’étape limitante de la Srx, et de son recyclage par les systèmes redox cellulaires. Dans un premier temps, nous avons caractérisé les deux étapes du cycle catalytique de la 2-Cys-Prx typique majeure de S. cerevisiae Tsa1, dont la compétition contrôle la sensibilité à la suroxydation, par une stratégie combinant cinétiques rapides, système enzymatique couplé et modélisation cinétique. Ces travaux suggèrent que cette compétition est contrôlée par une réorganisation conformationnelle au cours du cycle catalytique de la Tsa1. Dans un second temps, l’étude de la première étape du mécanisme catalytique de Srx, qui consiste en l’activation ATP-dépendante du groupement acide sulfinique de la 2 Cys-Prx a permis, i) de montrer que l’étape limitante de la réaction catalysée par Srx était associée au processus chimique de transfert de phosphate, et ii) de proposer un modèle d’assemblage du complexe Michaelien Prx/Srx/ATP formé lors de ce processus. Enfin, par une approche combinant cinétiques enzymatiques in vitro et génétique de la levure in vivo, nous avons établi que le mécanisme de recyclage des Srx à 1 Cys existant chez les plantes ou les mammifères implique le rôle du glutathion comme réducteur cellulaire, contrairement à la Srx de S. cerevisiae qui est recyclée par le système thiorédoxine. De façon inattendue, la spécificité du glutathion dans ce mécanisme est assurée par un événement de reconnaissance au sein du complexe Prx/Srx / The peroxiredoxins (Prx) are ubiquitous thiol peroxidases, which play a central role in the physiology of hydrogen peroxide. A subclass of Prx called "typical 2-Cys-Prx" has a unique property to hyperoxidize the catalytic Cys into the sulfinic acid form, which acts as a regulation mechanism of their functions, as peroxidase, peroxide sensor or protein chaperone. The reduction of the overoxidized form is catalyzed by sulfiredoxin (Srx), an ATP-dependent sulfinyl reductase whose catalytic constant is about 1-2 min-1, a low value that must be correlated to the role of Srx in redox regulation. The aim of this study was to analyze the enzymology of the regulation of the Prx/Srx system at three diffrents points of control: the hyper-oxidation process of typical 2-Cys-Prx, the rate-limiting step of the Srx mechanism and the recycling step of Srx by the cellular thiol redox systems. We have first characterized the competition mechanism between the two steps of the catalytic mechanism of the major typical 2-Cys-Prx of S. cerevisiae, Tsa1, through a strategy combining rapid kinetics, coupled enzyme system and kinetic modelling analysis. This work suggests that the sensitivity to hyper-oxidation is controlled by a conformational reorganization during the catalytic cycle of Tsa1. Next, the study of the first step of Srx catalytic mechanism, which involves the ATP-dependent activation of the sulfinic acid form of typical 2-Cys Prx i) has shown that the rate-limiting step is associated with the chemical phosphate transfer process, and ii) provided an assembly model of the Michaelien complex Prx/Srx/ATP, formed during this process. Finally, through the combination of in vitro enzyme kinetics and in vivo yeast genetic tools, we established that the recycling mechanism of one Cys Srx, existing in plants or mammals, involves the glutathione (GSH) as reducer in cells, contrary to the Srx from S. cerevisiae, which is recycled by the Thioredoxin system. Unexpectedly, our study suggests that GSH binds the thiolsulfinate complex, confirming the role of GSH as the primary reducing system of 1-Cys-Srx

A scientific and cultural revolution occurred with the sequencing of the human genome. The information provided by this accomplishment has provided tools for researchers to test new ideas in silico and on the bench. In redox biology many of the genes, transcripts, proteins, and redox active species have been well characterized. However, the vast majority have not been quantitated in an absolute manner. This is a necessary step to provide the tools for mathematical modeling and systems biology approaches for predicting changes in the cellular redox environment and the biochemical and biological consequences. Here we demonstrate techniques for the absolute quantitation of human catalase, glutathione peroxidase, peroxiredoxin, thioredoxin, and superoxide dismutase within cells. These techniques can be parsed into two groups: detection of activity and detection of total amount of species. Methods for the absolute quantitation of active catalase, peroxiredoxins, and superoxide dismutase have been developed by utilizing specific characteristics of each enzyme. Catalase generates oxygen in the presence of hydrogen peroxide that can easily be detected with a Clark electrode (oxygen monitor); the data are fit to a single-exponential to determine the observed pseudo-first-order rate constant. From this the effective number of fully active catalase enzymes in the sample can be determined. Peroxiredoxin in the disulfide state can be reduced by thioredoxin; thioredoxin from E. coli loses fluorescence upon oxidation. The loss of fluorescence over time is mathematically fit to a single-exponential to determine the observed pseudo first-order rate constant from which the number of active enzymes can be determined. Using an inhibition assay to detect superoxide dismutase activity along with the rate constants at which superoxide reacts with the dismutase and the competing superoxide-reacting-indicator-molecule, the concentration of active superoxide dismutase can be determined. To detect the total amount of protein of an enzyme in a biological sample, an immunoassay was first implemented. This method utilized Bio-Plex® beads from Bio-Rad; however, it was problematic because the antibodies applied did not perform satisfactorily not allowing sufficient signal-to-noise to be deployed. Quantitative mass spectrometry was then implemented to detect total catalase, glutathione peroxidase 1, peroxiredoxin 2, and thioredoxin 1 in human red blood cells. With the absolute concentration of these enzymes and proteins along with data for oxygen consumption rates and peroxisomal hydrogen peroxide concentration for several cell lines, we hypothesize that a reasonable model of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide flux can be constructed. Quantitative data such as these provide the foundation for the new redox biology of the 21st century. Presented here is a roadmap for the obligatory first steps to dissect quantitatively the cellular and tissue metabolic pathways and redox networks that are the basis of all of biology.

The oligomerisation of protein subunits is an area of much research interest, in particular the relationship to protein function. In the last decade, the potential to control the interactions involved in order to design constructs with tuneable oligomeric properties in vitro has been pursued. The subject of this thesis is the quaternary structure of members of the peroxiredoxin family, which have been seen to assume an intriguing array of organisations. Human Peroxiredoxin 3 (HsPrx3) and Mycobacterium tuberculosis alkyl hydroperoxide reductase (MtAhpE) catalyse the detoxification of reactive species, preferentially hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite respectively, and form an essential part of the antioxidant defence system. As well as their biomedical interest, the ability of these proteins to form organised supramolecular assemblies makes them of interest in protein nanotechnology. The work described focusses on the elucidation of the quaternary structure of both proteins, resolving previous debates about their oligomeric state. The factors influencing oligomerisation were examined through biophysical characterisation in different conditions, using solution techniques including chromatography, light and X-ray scattering, and electron microscopy. The insight gained, along with analysis of the protein-protein interfaces, was used to alter the quaternary structure through site-directed mutagenesis. This resulted in a level of control over the protein’s oligomeric state to be achieved, and novel structures with potential applications in nanotechnology to be generated. The activity of the non-native structures was also assessed, to begin to unravel the relationship between peroxiredoxin quaternary structure to enzyme activity. The formation and structure of very high molecular weight complexes of HsPrx3 were explored using electron microscopy. The first high resolution structural data for such a complex is presented, analysis of which allowed the theory of an assembly mechanism to be proposed.

As bactérias são reconhecidas pelos macrófagos através dos receptores do tipo Toll (TLR), que ativam as vias do NF-κB e das MAPKs, resultando em respostas como a fagocitose e a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio e nitrogênio (ROS/RNS), que causam a morte do microrganismo. P. aeruginosa, uma causa comum de pneumonia associada à ventilação mecânica, é uma bactéria que utiliza diversas estratégias de virulência e defesa, incluindo mecanismos antioxidantes. O objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a relação entre o papel da 1-Cys peroxirredoxina LsfA está envolvida na virulência de P. aeruginosa. Linhagens mutantes com deleção em lsfA ou com uma mutação pontual neste gene (troca da Cys45 por Ala, RB302) foram construídas, sendo mais sensíveis a peróxido de hidrogênio que a linhagem selvagem PA14, como verificado pelo halo de inibição de crescimento. A atividade peroxidásica de LsfA foi medida in vitro pelo ensaio de tiocianato férrico e apenas a proteína com a sequência selvagem foi ativa, enquanto uma mutação na Cys45 aboliu completamente a sua atividade. Infecção de macrófagos J774 com as linhagens ΔlsfA ou C45A resultaram em uma diminuição da morte dos macrófagos, aumento do clearance bacteriano e aumento da secreção de TNF-α em comparação aos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem PA14, sugerindo uma maior ativação das vias do NF-κB e das MAPKs nos macrófagos infectados com as linhagens mutantes. Para verificar se LsfA poderia alterar o estado oxidativo dos macrófagos, eles foram infectados com as linhagens PA14 ou RB302 (C45A) e incubadas com carbóxi-H2DCFDA, um indicador que se torna fluorescente quando oxidado. Macrófagos infectados com a linhagem mutante demonstraram um maior estado oxidativo em comparação aos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem selvagem, confirmando que LsfA limita a ativação dos macrófagos, resultando numa menor produção de TNF-α e diminuição da citotoxicidade. A via das MAPKs e do NF-κB são requeridos para a produção máxima de TNF-α nos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem RB302, o que foi demonstrado utilizando-se de inibidores farmacológicos para essas vias. Como esperado, quando os macrófagos foram infectados com a linhagem RB302 na presença do antioxidante N-acetil-cisteína, houve uma redução da produção de TNF-α a níveis semelhantes dos macrófagos infectados com a linhagem selvagem. Em modelo de pneumonia aguda, todos os camundongos infectados com a linhagem PA14 morreram 48h pós-infecção, enquanto os camundongos infectados com a linhagem RB302 sobreviveram por mais de 60 dias após a infecção. Houve uma redução do número de bactérias nos pulmões, baço e fígado nos camundongos infectados com a linhagem RB302 em comparação aos camundongos infectados com a linhagem PA14. Também foi observado um aumento na produção de citocinas pró-inflamatórias nos camundongos infectados com a linhagem RB302 em comparação aos camundongos infectados com PA14. Com isso, foi demonstrado pela primeira vez o envolvimento de uma 1-Cys peroxirredoxina de bactérias na virulência, com a modulação da resposta imune do hospedeiro in vitro e in vivo. / Bacteria are recognized by macrophages via Toll-Like Receptors (TLR), leading to a signaling pathway that activates NF-κB and MAPKs. Killing in phagossomes is achieved by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) generation. P. aeruginosa is a common cause of ventilator associated pneumonia and it uses several strategies for virulence and defense, including antioxidant mechanisms. In this work, we show for the first time that the 1-Cys peroxiredoxin LsfA is implicated in P. aeruginosa virulence. Mutant strains with a deletion in lsfA or with a mutation (Cys45 to Ala, RB302) were constructed and they were more sensitive to H2O2 than the wild type strain PA14, as verified by a growth inhibition assay. In vitro peroxidasic activity of LsfA was measured by ferric-thiocyanate assay, and while the wild-type protein was active, the mutation in Cys45 abolished its activity. Infection of J774 macrophages with ΔlsfA or C45A strains resulted in lower cell death, increased bacterial clearance and higher TNF-α production in comparison to PA14-infected macrophages, suggesting a higher level of MAPKs and NF-κB activation due to the mutant strains. To verify whether LsfA could modify the oxidative state of infected macrophages, they were infected with PA14 or RB302 strains and incubated with carboxy-H2DCFDA, an indicator that emits fluorescence when oxidized. Macrophages infected with mutant strains showed a higher oxidative state in comparison to PA14-infected cells, thus confirming that LsfA limits macrophages activation that leads to TNF-α production and cytotoxic activity. MAPKs and NF-κB pathways are required to full production of TNF-α in macrophages infected with RB302, as shown using pharmacological inhibitors for those pathways. When macrophages were infected with RB302 in the presence of the antioxidant N-acetyl-cysteine, there was a reduction in TNF-α production as compared to PA14, as expected. In an acute pneumonia model, all PA14-infected mice died at 48h post-infection, while C45A-infected mice survived as long as 60 days. There was also reduction in bacterial counts in the lungs, spleen and liver of mice infected with RB302, in comparison to PA14-infected mice. A greater pro-inflammatory cytokine production was observed in mice infected with mutant strain in comparison to mice infected with PA14. Altogether, this work shows for the first time the role of a bacterial 1-Cys Prx that modulates host immune response in vitro and in vivo.

Abstract Reactive oxygen species (ROS) can cause severe damage to cells and organs but they are also important mediators of inflammatory responses and cellular signalling. Due to the significant role of ROS, the cells have evolved a broad antioxidative system to regulate the concentration of these species. Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) are enzymes that participate in the regulation of the cellular redox-homeostasis by detoxifying hydrogen peroxide. Prxs are not classified as conventional antioxidant enzymes and their physiological role, whether protective or regulatory, is still unclear. The aim of this project was to study the localization and regulation of Prxs in normal human lung and also their role in selected lung disorders (pulmonary sarcoidosis, pleural mesothelioma, lung carcinomas and chronic obstructive disorder, COPD). Additionally the expression of thioredoxin (Trx) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR) was analysed in the lung of smokers and COPD patients. These enzymes are important reductants in cell and Prxs are one of their targets. Lung is an important organ in the field of ROS and antioxidant research since it is especially vulnerable to exogenous oxidative stress caused by pollutants, cigarette smoke and also by high oxygen pressure. The results showed that all six human Prxs were expressed in healthy human lung but in a cell-specific manner. The most prominent expression was detected in the epithelium and in macrophages, the cells most prone to oxidative stress. There were also differences in subcellular locations of Prxs. The expression of Prxs in non-malignant lung diseases (pulmonary sarcoidosis and COPD) and in smoker's lung was very similar with that in normal lung. Higher expression of Prx V and VI was detected in a subpopulation of macrophages sampled from COPD patients' lung. In contrast, Trx expression was induced in the bronchial epithelium of smoker's lung. Differences in the expression compared to normal lung were seen in lung malignancies (pleural mesothelioma and lung carcinomas). Interestingly, different Prxs were highly expressed in different types of carcinomas. In pleural mesothelioma, all Prxs except Prx IV were highly expressed when compared to normal pleura, in adenocarcinoma Prxs I, II, VI and especially IV, and in squamous cell carcinoma Prxs I, II and IV were upregulated. Tests performed on cultured cells in vitro revealed only a minor increase in the Prx expression after severe oxidant stress in malignant lung cell line originating from alveolar type II pneumocytes (A549) or non-malignant cell line derived from bronchial epithelium. None of the tested growth factors or cytokines affected Prx expression or oxidation state, but severe oxidant stress influenced remarkably the oxidation state of the Prxs.

Currently the mammalian endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is known to contain at least 20 different protein disulphide isomerase (PDI) family members. The oxidoreductases in the PDI family are thought to catalyse the formation and rearrangement of disulphide bonds in newly synthesised proteins. The focus of this work was to characterise two of the PDI family members: PDI and ERp46. In vitro translation reactions of major histocompatibility complex (MHC), β1-integrin (β1-I), haemagglutinin (HA), procollagen α1(III) and preprolaction (pPL) were carried out in untreated or PDI-depleted cells. The depletion of PDI decreased the rate of folding of MHC and β1-I and also prevented the oligomerisation of HA, suggesting a role for PDI in folding these putative substrates. However, when PDI was depleted neither the folding of pPL or HA was affected, implying that they may not be substrates for PDI. To determine the role of ERp46 in the cell, a substrate-trapping approach was used. Here substrates interacting with ERp46 were trapped as mixed disulphides isolated by immunoprecipitation, separated by 2D SDS-PAGE and identified by mass spectrometry. It was demonstrated that ERp46 forms mixed disulphides with at least 23 proteins, including heavily secreted proteins such as laminins, integrins and collagens. In particular, interactions with Ero1, Prx IV, EDEM3 and ERAP2 were found and confirmed by immunoprecipitation of radiolabelled in vitro translated protein. Notably nine of these clients of ERp46 have previously been identified as substrates of ERp57 (Jessop, Watkins et al. 2009). This would support the hypothesis that several different oxidoreductases, working in concert, are required to fold certain substrate proteins. Also, it was confirmed that Prx IV and Ero1 each form a mixed disulphide with PDI. These results highlight the importance of PDI family members in recruiting co-factors to substrates. Additionally, the over-expression of ERp46 led to increased cell survival following DTT treatment, yet after depletion of ERp46, cells were less able to grow, perhaps suggesting a role for ERp46 in maintaining ER redox homeostasis and cell survival. This suggestion was supported by the finding that ERp46 is able to catalyse the reduction of Prx IV in the presence of glutathione. These results suggest that Prx IV provides a novel mechanism for the transfer of disulphide bonds to nascent proteins in the ER via PDI family members such as ERp46 and PDI.