Defeitos peroxissomais estão associados a diversas doenças complexas. O peroxissomo é responsável pela beta-oxidação de ácidos graxos, quando é gerado peróxido de hidrogênio. A catalase A, de ocorrência peroxissomal, é frequentemente considerada a única defesa antioxidante dessa organela, porém, em diversos organismos, a ausência dessa enzima não acarreta uma alteração fenotípica clara. Em Saccharomyces cerevisiae, linhagens mutantes deficientes em catalase A (Δcta1) apresentam viabilidade muito similar à linhagem selvagem correspondente. Trabalhamos com a hipótese de que peroxidases baseadas em cisteína compensam a ausência de catalase A, contribuindo para a detoxificação de peróxidos provenientes do peroxissomo. De fato, linhagens com os genes para as peroxirredoxinas Ahp1 e Tsa1 nocauteados mostraram-se mais sensíveis a hidroperóxido de terc-butila (tBHP) em comparação a linhagem selvagem. A linhagem de levedura deficiente nas cinco peroxirredoxinas (prxΔ) mostrou-se ainda mais sensível a tBHP. Em relação ao estresse induzido por peróxido de hidrogênio, a prxΔ apresentou maior sensibilidade do que as linhagens selvagem e mutantes com deleções simples, apesar da presença de catalases (peroxissomal e citossólica). Esses dados estão de acordo com resultados obtidos no nosso grupo demonstrando um aumento da expressão de genes referentes às peroxirredoxinas Ahp1, Prx1 e Tsa2 em células Δ cta1 crescidas em condições de alta atividade peroxissomal (oleato), indicando uma cooperação entre catalase e peroxirredoxinas na proteção antioxidante. A peroxirredoxina Ahp1 pode apresentar localização organelar (possivelmente mitocondrial ou peroxissomal), o que sugere que Ahp1 pode ser um componente relevante da defesa contra oxidantes provenientes do peroxissomo. No entanto, a linhagem Δ ahp1, normalmente sensível a peróxido orgânico, apresentou ganho de resistência na ausência de atividade de catalase (com a adição de ATZ e na linhagem duplo-mutante Δcta1/ahp1), indicando a existência de uma via antioxidante compensatória induzida pela ausência de catalase A. A construção das linhagens duplo-mutantes Δcta1/ahp1, Δcta1/tsa1, Δcta1/tsa2, Δ cta1/prx1 e Δcta1/dot5 foi realizada com o objetivo de investigar mecanismos compensatórios entre enzimas que podem proteger a levedura contra os oxidantes provenientes do peroxissomo. Para tanto, foram realizados ensaios de viabilidade comparativa em condições de alta atividade peroxissomal. Além disso, os níveis comparativos de proteínas carboniladas foram analisados nessas linhagens. Os resultados indicaram maior sensibilidade a peróxido e maiores níveis de danos oxidativos na linhagem Δcta1/tsa2, apontando a peroxirredoxina Tsa2 como candidata a importante componente da via antioxidante de compensação à ausência de catalase A. Nesses ensaios, também foram utilizadas a linhagem quíntupla mutante (prxΔ) e uma linhagem deficiente nas cinco peroxirredoxinas e três glutationa peroxidases - deficiente em oito tiól-peroxidases baseadas em cisteína (Δ8). A comparação das linhagens prxΔ e Δ8 com as linhagens selvagem, simples-mutantes e duplo-mutantes evidenciou a importância das peroxirredoxinas na defesa antioxidante da célula e o fato das tiól-peroxidases serem imprescindíveis em condições de estresse oxidativo. Ao examinar a expressão gênica de TSA2 em células crescidas em oleato, foi verificada a indução do gene na ausência de catalase A, em condição basal. Os resultados obtidos indicam a existência de uma eficiente via de defesa antioxidante, na qual estão envolvidas tiól-peroxidases, que compensa a ausência de catalase A na célula e que protege leveduras contra estresse induzido tanto por peróxido de hidrogênio como peróxido orgânico. A peroxirredoxina Tsa2 parece estar envolvida na via compensatória à ausência de catalase peroxissomal através de um mecanismo ainda não esclarecido / Defects in peroxisomes are associated with several complex diseases. Beta-oxidation of fatty acids takes place in these organelles, with the concomitant generation of hydrogen peroxide. Generally, it is assumed that peroxisomal catalase is the enzyme responsible for degradation of hydrogen peroxide, but in several organisms, deletion of its gene results in no clear phenotype. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, catalase A- null (Δcta1) mutant strains exhibit very similar viability levels when compared with the corresponding wild-type strain. We hypothesized here that Cys-based peroxidases compensate the absence of catalase A, contributing to the detoxification of peroxides derived from the peroxisome. Indeed, null mutante strains for the peroxiredoxins Ahp1 and Tsa1 displayed increased sensitivity for tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBHP) in comparison to the wild type strain. Furthermore, a mutant strain whose five genes for peroxiredoxins were interrupted (prxΔ) was even more sensitive to tBHP. In regards to hydrogen peroxide insult, the prxΔ strain was more susceptible to oxidative stress than the single mutant and wild-type strains, despite the activity of catalases. These data are in agreement with previous results from our group demonstrating increased expression of genes encoding the three peroxiredoxin enzymes: Ahp1, Prx1 and Tsa2 in Δcta1 cells at high peroxisomal activity (media containing oleate). Indeed, a yeast strain deleted of all five peroxiredoxin genes is more sensitive to peroxides than the corresponding wild type cells. These results indicated that catalase and peroxiredoxins cooperate to protect yeast in conditions of high fatty acid intake. There are evidences of an organellar location of Ahp1 (possible peroxisomal or mitochondrial), suggesting it could be a relevant component of antioxidant defense relative to the insult derived from the peroxisome. Nonetheless, the ahp1-null strain (Δahp1), which is usually sensitive to organic peroxide, displayed a gain of resistance in the absence of catalase activity (in the presence of ATZ and in the double-mutant strain Δcta1/ahp1), indicating the existance of a compensatory antioxidant pathway induced in the absence of catalase A. The double-mutant strains Δcta1/ahp1, Δcta1/tsa1, Δcta1/tsa2, Δcta1/prx1 and Δcta1/dot5 were developed in order to elucidate the identity of the enzymes that cooperate to protect yeast against oxidative insult derived from the peroxisome. To this end, comparative viability assays in conditions of high peroxisomal activity were realised, as well as assays in comparative total protein carbonyl levels. Among the double-mutant strains, Δcta1/tsa2 displayed higher sensibility to peroxide and higher levels of oxidative damage, suggesting that the peroxiredoxin Tsa2 may be an important component in the antioxidant pathway that compensates the lack of catalase A. In addition, a quintuple mutant strain, lacking all peroxiredoxins, and a mutant strain lacking all eight Cys-based, thiol peroxidases were used in these assays. The comparison of these strains with the wild-type, single-mutant and double-mutant strains demonstrated the importance of peroxiredoxins in the cellular antioxidant defence and that thiol-peroxidases are vital in conditions of oxidative stress. The expression of the TSA2 was induced in the absence of catalase A in cells grown in oleate and with no exogenous oxidants. The results suggest the existence of an efficient pathway of antioxidant defense, involving thiol-peroxidases, which compensates the absence of catalase A in the cell and protects yeast against oxidative stress induced by both hydrogen peroxide and organic peroxide. The peroxiredoxin Tsa2 may be involved in the antioxidant pathway that compensates the absence of peroxisomal catalase through an unknown mechanism.

Les peroxyrédoxines (PRXs) forment une famille de peroxydases communes à tous les organismes vivants et ubiquitaires dans la cellule. Leur particularité provient d’un ou deux résidus cystéines accomplissant un cycle d’oxydo-réduction à l’aide d’un donneur d’électron. Ces protéines thiols sensibles au potentiel redox sont impliquées dans le mécanisme de détoxification du H2O2, une molécule oxydante induite lors de situations de stress. Les PRXs pourraient être induites par le stress et régulées par phosphorylation. En effet, des expérimentations in vitro ont démontré que la nucléoside diphosphate kinase 1 (NDPK1) a la capacité de phosphoryler une PRX cytosolique de pomme de terre. Ce mémoire décrit les travaux expérimentaux effectués pour caractériser la fonction de la PRX. Pour cela, le clonage d’une isoforme a été effectué, suivi d’une caractérisation biochimique et d’une étude d’expression de la protéine. Les données de séquençage révèlent qu’il s’agit d’une PRX de type II phylogénétiquement liée aux PRXs cytosoliques. L’ADNc codant pour cette peroxyrédoxine (PRX1) a été cloné chez Solanum chacoense. Une protéine recombinante portant une étiquette (6xHis) en N-terminale a été produite. Des essais enzymatiques ont confirmé la fonction antioxydante de la protéine recombinante et un anticorps polyclonal a été généré chez le lapin puis utilisé en conjonction avec un anticorps anti-NDPK1 pour déterminer les patrons d’expression généraux de ces protéines chez Solanum lycopersicum et Solanum tuberosum lors de situations de stress. Les données démontrent que les deux protéines sont généralement co-exprimées mais pas co-régulées et que la PRX1 est induite en certaines situations de stress. / The peroxiredoxins (PRXs) are a recently discovered family of peroxidases found in all organisms and ubiquitous in the cell. An important particularity of these proteins is the presence of one or two active cysteines that accomplish an oxydo-reduction cycle with an electron donor. The PRXs are sensitive to the redox potential and are implicated in the detoxification of the H2O2, an oxidante molecule induced in stress situations. The PRXs should be induced in stress situations and regulated by phosphorylation. Indeed, in vitro experimentations have shown that the NDPK1 can phosphorylate a cytosolic PRX isoform of the potato. This dissertation describes the experimentation made to acquire a preliminary understanding of the function of the PRX. For this purpose, we cloned a PRX isoform, followed by a biochemical characterization and expression studies of the protein. The sequencing data shown a type II PRX phylogenetically related to the cytosolic isoforms. The cDNA of this peroxiredoxin (PRX1) has been cloned in Solanum chacoense. The recombinant protein produced had a N-terminal (6xHis) tag. Enzymatic assays confirmed the antioxidant activity of the recombinant protein and a polyclonal antibody has been generated from the rabbit. This antibody was used in conjunction with an antibody anti-NDPK1 to determine the general expression patterns of those proteins during stresses in Solanum lycopersicum and Solanum tuberosum. The results obtained showed that the two proteins are generally co-expressed but not co-regulated. Obvious experimental facts displayed an induction of the PRX1 in biotic and abiotic stresses situations.

Defeitos peroxissomais estão associados a diversas doenças complexas. O peroxissomo é responsável pela beta-oxidação de ácidos graxos, quando é gerado peróxido de hidrogênio. A catalase A, de ocorrência peroxissomal, é frequentemente considerada a única defesa antioxidante dessa organela, porém, em diversos organismos, a ausência dessa enzima não acarreta uma alteração fenotípica clara. Em Saccharomyces cerevisiae, linhagens mutantes deficientes em catalase A (Δcta1) apresentam viabilidade muito similar à linhagem selvagem correspondente. Trabalhamos com a hipótese de que peroxidases baseadas em cisteína compensam a ausência de catalase A, contribuindo para a detoxificação de peróxidos provenientes do peroxissomo. De fato, linhagens com os genes para as peroxirredoxinas Ahp1 e Tsa1 nocauteados mostraram-se mais sensíveis a hidroperóxido de terc-butila (tBHP) em comparação a linhagem selvagem. A linhagem de levedura deficiente nas cinco peroxirredoxinas (prxΔ) mostrou-se ainda mais sensível a tBHP. Em relação ao estresse induzido por peróxido de hidrogênio, a prxΔ apresentou maior sensibilidade do que as linhagens selvagem e mutantes com deleções simples, apesar da presença de catalases (peroxissomal e citossólica). Esses dados estão de acordo com resultados obtidos no nosso grupo demonstrando um aumento da expressão de genes referentes às peroxirredoxinas Ahp1, Prx1 e Tsa2 em células Δ cta1 crescidas em condições de alta atividade peroxissomal (oleato), indicando uma cooperação entre catalase e peroxirredoxinas na proteção antioxidante. A peroxirredoxina Ahp1 pode apresentar localização organelar (possivelmente mitocondrial ou peroxissomal), o que sugere que Ahp1 pode ser um componente relevante da defesa contra oxidantes provenientes do peroxissomo. No entanto, a linhagem Δ ahp1, normalmente sensível a peróxido orgânico, apresentou ganho de resistência na ausência de atividade de catalase (com a adição de ATZ e na linhagem duplo-mutante Δcta1/ahp1), indicando a existência de uma via antioxidante compensatória induzida pela ausência de catalase A. A construção das linhagens duplo-mutantes Δcta1/ahp1, Δcta1/tsa1, Δcta1/tsa2, Δ cta1/prx1 e Δcta1/dot5 foi realizada com o objetivo de investigar mecanismos compensatórios entre enzimas que podem proteger a levedura contra os oxidantes provenientes do peroxissomo. Para tanto, foram realizados ensaios de viabilidade comparativa em condições de alta atividade peroxissomal. Além disso, os níveis comparativos de proteínas carboniladas foram analisados nessas linhagens. Os resultados indicaram maior sensibilidade a peróxido e maiores níveis de danos oxidativos na linhagem Δcta1/tsa2, apontando a peroxirredoxina Tsa2 como candidata a importante componente da via antioxidante de compensação à ausência de catalase A. Nesses ensaios, também foram utilizadas a linhagem quíntupla mutante (prxΔ) e uma linhagem deficiente nas cinco peroxirredoxinas e três glutationa peroxidases - deficiente em oito tiól-peroxidases baseadas em cisteína (Δ8). A comparação das linhagens prxΔ e Δ8 com as linhagens selvagem, simples-mutantes e duplo-mutantes evidenciou a importância das peroxirredoxinas na defesa antioxidante da célula e o fato das tiól-peroxidases serem imprescindíveis em condições de estresse oxidativo. Ao examinar a expressão gênica de TSA2 em células crescidas em oleato, foi verificada a indução do gene na ausência de catalase A, em condição basal. Os resultados obtidos indicam a existência de uma eficiente via de defesa antioxidante, na qual estão envolvidas tiól-peroxidases, que compensa a ausência de catalase A na célula e que protege leveduras contra estresse induzido tanto por peróxido de hidrogênio como peróxido orgânico. A peroxirredoxina Tsa2 parece estar envolvida na via compensatória à ausência de catalase peroxissomal através de um mecanismo ainda não esclarecido / Defects in peroxisomes are associated with several complex diseases. Beta-oxidation of fatty acids takes place in these organelles, with the concomitant generation of hydrogen peroxide. Generally, it is assumed that peroxisomal catalase is the enzyme responsible for degradation of hydrogen peroxide, but in several organisms, deletion of its gene results in no clear phenotype. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, catalase A- null (Δcta1) mutant strains exhibit very similar viability levels when compared with the corresponding wild-type strain. We hypothesized here that Cys-based peroxidases compensate the absence of catalase A, contributing to the detoxification of peroxides derived from the peroxisome. Indeed, null mutante strains for the peroxiredoxins Ahp1 and Tsa1 displayed increased sensitivity for tert-butylhydroperoxide (tBHP) in comparison to the wild type strain. Furthermore, a mutant strain whose five genes for peroxiredoxins were interrupted (prxΔ) was even more sensitive to tBHP. In regards to hydrogen peroxide insult, the prxΔ strain was more susceptible to oxidative stress than the single mutant and wild-type strains, despite the activity of catalases. These data are in agreement with previous results from our group demonstrating increased expression of genes encoding the three peroxiredoxin enzymes: Ahp1, Prx1 and Tsa2 in Δcta1 cells at high peroxisomal activity (media containing oleate). Indeed, a yeast strain deleted of all five peroxiredoxin genes is more sensitive to peroxides than the corresponding wild type cells. These results indicated that catalase and peroxiredoxins cooperate to protect yeast in conditions of high fatty acid intake. There are evidences of an organellar location of Ahp1 (possible peroxisomal or mitochondrial), suggesting it could be a relevant component of antioxidant defense relative to the insult derived from the peroxisome. Nonetheless, the ahp1-null strain (Δahp1), which is usually sensitive to organic peroxide, displayed a gain of resistance in the absence of catalase activity (in the presence of ATZ and in the double-mutant strain Δcta1/ahp1), indicating the existance of a compensatory antioxidant pathway induced in the absence of catalase A. The double-mutant strains Δcta1/ahp1, Δcta1/tsa1, Δcta1/tsa2, Δcta1/prx1 and Δcta1/dot5 were developed in order to elucidate the identity of the enzymes that cooperate to protect yeast against oxidative insult derived from the peroxisome. To this end, comparative viability assays in conditions of high peroxisomal activity were realised, as well as assays in comparative total protein carbonyl levels. Among the double-mutant strains, Δcta1/tsa2 displayed higher sensibility to peroxide and higher levels of oxidative damage, suggesting that the peroxiredoxin Tsa2 may be an important component in the antioxidant pathway that compensates the lack of catalase A. In addition, a quintuple mutant strain, lacking all peroxiredoxins, and a mutant strain lacking all eight Cys-based, thiol peroxidases were used in these assays. The comparison of these strains with the wild-type, single-mutant and double-mutant strains demonstrated the importance of peroxiredoxins in the cellular antioxidant defence and that thiol-peroxidases are vital in conditions of oxidative stress. The expression of the TSA2 was induced in the absence of catalase A in cells grown in oleate and with no exogenous oxidants. The results suggest the existence of an efficient pathway of antioxidant defense, involving thiol-peroxidases, which compensates the absence of catalase A in the cell and protects yeast against oxidative stress induced by both hydrogen peroxide and organic peroxide. The peroxiredoxin Tsa2 may be involved in the antioxidant pathway that compensates the absence of peroxisomal catalase through an unknown mechanism.

A bactéria fitopatogênica Xylella fastidiosa é o agente etiológico da Clorose Variegada dos Citros (CVC), que causa perdas anuais estimadas em US$ 100 milhões no Brasil. Durante o processo infeccioso, a geração extracelular de espécies ativas de oxigênio é um dos principais mecanismos de defesa da planta contra o patógeno. Em contrapartida, para se defender do estresse oxidativo imposto pelo hospedeiro, os fitopatógenos possuem mecanismos de defesa que incluem enzimas antioxidantes, como as peroxirredoxinas, alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade C (AhpC) e proteína comigratória com bacterioferritina (Bcp). As peroxirredoxinas são proteínas que utilizam suas cisteínas ativas para catalisar a redução de hidroperóxidos. Por análise proteômica, os produtos dos genes ahpc e bcp foram identificados no extrato celular protéico de X. fastidiosa (Smolka e col., 2003). Com o intuito de caracterizar funcional e estruturalmente as proteínas AhpC e Bcp de X. fastidiosa, clonamos e expressamos seus respectivos genes em Escherichia coli e purificamos as proteínas por cromatografia de afinidade a níquel. As proteínas recombinantes apresentaram atividade dependente de tiól de redução de peróxido de hidrogênio e hidroperóxidos orgânicos. A atividade peroxidase da AhpC e Bcp são dependentes, respectivamente, de alquil hidroperóxido redutase subunidade F (AhpF) e do sistema tiorredoxina. Paradoxalmente, a flavoproteína AhpF possui atividade NAD(P)H oxidase, que resulta na produção de peróxido de hidrogênio. As constantes de segunda ordem da reação das proteínas com peróxido de hidrogênio (da ordem de 107 M-1.s-1), determinadas pelo ensaio de cinética competitiva com peroxidase de raiz forte, indicam que ambas possuem atividades peroxidase equivalentes às apresentadas por glutationa peroxidases dependentes de selênio e catalases, ao contrário do descrito na literatura. Por SDS-PAGE não-redutor e pela quantificação de cisteínas livres por DTNB, verificamos que as proteínas possuem mecanismos catalíticos distintos: AhpC é uma 2-Cys Prx típica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intermolecular), enquanto Bcp é uma 2-Cys Prx atípica (com formação de ponte dissulfeto intramolecular). Para AhpC, a atividade catalítica envolve as cisteínas conservadas (Cys-47 e Cys-165), em contraste, apenas através de estudos de mutação sítio-dirigida e espectrometria de massas conseguimos identificar os resíduos de cisteínas envolvidos na atividade catalítica da Bcp (Cys-47 e Cys-83). A caracterização estrutural de AhpC por cromatografia de exclusão molecular e espalhamento dinâmico de luz mostram que a proteína nativa é um decâmero estável, independentemente do estado de oxidação de suas cisteínas. A caracterização da estrutura cristalográfica de Bcp C47S, inédita para 2-Cys Prx atípicas que possuem as cisteínas ativas separadas por 35 aminoácidos, indica que a proteína possui o enovelamento característico das peroxirredoxinas e que as cisteínas ativas estão localizadas a uma distância média de 12,4 Å. Baseado em dicroísmo circular, apresentamos dados que indicam que a aproximação das cisteínas deve envolver um significativo rearranjo estrutural, que provavelmente se inicia com a formação do intermediário ácido sulfênico na cisteína peroxidásica (Cys-47). Assim, conseguimos elucidar o papel catalítico dessas proteínas, bem como identificar seus sistemas redutores, obtendo informações que podem ser relevantes para o entendimento do mecanismo da patogenicidade da X. fastidiosa. Os resultados apresentados neste trabalho podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de novas técnicas de controle de praga para a doença CVC em citrus e outras que envolvam a bactéria X. fastidiosa. / The phytopathogenic bacterium Xylella fastidiosa is the etiological agent of Citrus Variegated Chlorosis (CVC) that causes losses of about 100 millions dollars per year in Brazil. During infection, reactive oxygen species play a central role in plant pathogen defense. To survive under oxidative stress imposed by the host, microorganisms express antioxidant proteins, including the peroxiredoxins alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit C (AhpC) and bacterioferritin comigratory protein (Bcp). Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases, which rely on an activated cysteine residue to catalyze the reduction of hydroperoxides. By proteome analysis, Smolka et al. (2003) identified the products of ahpc and bcp genes present in whole cell extract of X. fastidiosa. To characterize the function and structure of AhpC and Bcp protein, their genes were cloned in Escherichia coli and the corresponding proteins purified by nickel affinity chromatography. Recombinant proteins presented thiol-dependent peroxidase activity against hydrogen peroxide and organic hydroperoxides. AhpC and Bcp peroxidase activities are dependent on alkyl hydroperoxide reductase subunit F (AhpF), and on thioredoxin system, respectively. Paradoxically, AhpF flavoenzyme possesses hydrogen peroxide-forming oxidase activity. Contrary to classical assumptions, competitive kinetics employing horseradish peroxidase assays showed that the second-order rate constants of AhpC and Bcp reaction with hydrogen peroxide are in the order of 107 M-1.s-1, as fast as the activity of selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidases and catalases. Non-reducing SDS-PAGE and cysteine quantification using DTNB indicated different peroxidasic mechanisms: AhpC is a typical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intermolecular disulfide bond formation), while Bcp is an atypical 2-Cys peroxiredoxin (with intramolecular disulfide bond formation). In contrast to the well-conserved AhpC cysteines responsible for the peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-165), only through site-specific mutagenesis and mass spectrometry we could identified the cysteine residues involved in the Bcp peroxidase activity (Cys-47 and Cys-83). Structural characterization by size exclusion chromatography and dynamic light scattering revealed that AhpC native protein forms stable and redox state independent decamers. The crystal structure of Bcp C47S, the first 2-Cys Prx with a 35-residue between the active cysteines ever characterized, shows that protein contains the common fold of peroxiredoxins and that active cysteines lies ~12.4 Å away one from the other. Based on circular dichroism, we presented data indicating that disulfide bond formation may require significant conformational changes, which probably is triggered by the peroxidatic cysteine oxidation to sulfenic acid. In conclusion, we elucidated the catalytic mechanisms and reduction systems of AhpC and Bcp proteins that may help to understand the pathogenicity mechanism of X. fastidiosa. These results can contribute to the development of plague control methods against X. fastidiosa.

As peroxirredoxinas constituem uma família de tiol-proteínas, que reduzem peróxido de hidrogênio, peróxidos orgânicos e peroxinitrito a água, álcool e nitrito, respectivamente, utilizando equivalentes redutores fornecidos pela tiorredoxina, tiorredoxina redutase e NADPH. As peroxirredoxinas são enzimas abundantes (constituem aproximadamente 0,7 % do total de proteínas solúveis presentes em leveduras) e foram identificadas em diversas espécies de animais, plantas e bactérias, porém seu papel fisiológico ainda é discutido. Até recentemente, as peroxirredoxinas eram consideradas pouco eficientes para detoxificar peróxidos, em comparação às catalases e heme-peroxidases. De fato, as constantes de segunda ordem determinadas para as reações de peroxirredoxinas com peróxido de hidrogênio eram da ordem de 104-105 M-1 s-1, valores muito menores que os de hemeproteínas (~107 M-1 s-1). Neste trabalho, um método de cinética competitiva foi desenvolvido para re-determinar essas constantes de velocidade, utilizando a peroxidase de raiz forte como competidora das peroxirredoxinas de S. cerevisiae, Tsa1 e Tsa2. Este método foi validado e as constantes de velocidade determinadas para Tsa1 e Tsa2 foram da ordem de k~ 107 M-1 s-1 para a reação com peróxido de hidrogênio e da ordem de k~10105 M-1 s-1 para a reação com peroxinitrito. Utilizando a mesma metodologia, foi possível ainda determinar o pKa da cisteína peroxidásica da Tsa1 e Tsa2 (Cys47), como sendo 5,4 e 6,3, respectivamente. Paralelamente, o papel fisiológico das peroxirredoxinas foi examinado em linhagens de S. cerevisiae com deleção de Tsa1, Tsa2 ou de ambas isoformas. Os estudos foram realizados sob condições fermentativas e a linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ se mostrou mais resistente ao peróxido de hidrogênio (1 mM) e o consumiu mais rapidamente que a WT. Além disso, a linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ produziu quantidades mais altas do radical 1-hidroxietila, produto da oxidação do etanol, que é o principal metabólito da levedura em anaerobiose. O mecanismo de formação do radical 1-hidroxietila foi examinado e a quantificação da concentração de ferro quelatável, ferro total e cobre mostrou que a reação de Fenton não era sua principal fonte. Outro mecanismo investigado foi a formação do radical através da atividade peroxidásica da Sod1, cuja expressão e atividade se mostraram aumentadas cerca de 5 e 2 vezes, respectivamente, na linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ. Na linhagem mutante ainda foi observado que o tratamento com peróxido de hidrogênio aumentou a concentração de radicais derivados e adutos do DNA, detectados por imuno-spin trapping e incorporação de 14C derivado da glicose. Em conjunto, os resultados deste trabalho reforçam a importância das peroxirredoxinas na defesa antioxidante e mostram que as respostas compensatórias empregadas pela levedura para contornar as deleções de Tsa1 e Tsa2 podem ser deletérias longo prazo. / Peroxiredoxins constitute a family of cysteine-based peroxidases that are able to reduce hydrogen peroxide, organic peroxides and peroxinitrite to water, alcohol and nitrite, respectively, through the use of reducing equivalents provided by thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase and NADPH. Peroxiredoxins are abundant enzymes (correspond to approximately 0.7% of total soluble protein in yeasts) and have been identified in several species ranging from animals, plants and bacteria, but their physiological role remains under scrutiny. Peoxiredoxins were regarded as less eficient enzymes in comparison with catalases and heme-peroxidases for detoxification of peroxides. Second-order rate constants determined for the reaction of peroxiredoxins with hydrogen peroxide were in the range of 104-105 M-1 s-1, which is quite low, as compared with those of heme-proteins (~107 M-1 s-1). In the present work, a competitive kinetic approach with horseradish peroxidase was developed in order to determine the second order rate constant of the reaction of peroxiredoxins with peroxynitrite and hydrogen peroxide. This method was validated and permitted for the determination of the second order rate constant value of the reaction of Tsa1 and Tsa2 with peroxynitrite (k~105 M-1 s-1) and hydrogen peroxide (k~ 107 M-1 s-1) at pH 7.4, 25 °C. It also permitted the determination of the pKa of the peroxidatic cysteine of Tsa1 and Tsa2 (Cys47) as 5.4 and 6.3, respectively. In parallel, the physiological role of peroxiredoxins was examined in S. cerevisiae strains with deletion of Tsa1, Tsa2 or of both isoforms. Under fermentative conditions, tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells were more resistant to 1 mM hydrogen peroxide than WT cells, and consumed it faster. In addition, tsa1tsa2 cells produced higher yields of the 1- hydroxyethyl radical from the oxidation of the glucose metabolite ethanol, as shown by spintrapping experiments. A major role for Fenton chemistry in radical formation was excluded by comparing WT and tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells with respect to their levels of chelatable iron ions, total iron and copper ions, and of 1-hydroxyethyl radical produced in the presence of metal ion chelators. The main route for 1-hydroxyethyl radical formation was ascribed to the peroxidase activity of Sod1, whose expression and activity increased about five- and twofold, respectively, in tsa1Δtsa2Δ compared to WT cells. Relevantly, tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells challenged with hydrogen peroxide contained higher levels of DNA-derived radicals and adducts as monitored by immuno-spin trapping and incorporation of 14C from glucose into DNA, respectively. Taken together, our results reinforce the importance of peroxiredoxins in the antioxidant defense show that the compensatory responses employed by yeast to counterbalance the deletions of Tsa1 and Tsa2 may be deleterious in the long time range.

La vida aeróbica conlleva la formación de especies reactivas derivadas del oxígeno: el radical hidroxilo (OH·), el ión superóxido (O2·-) y el peróxido de hidrógeno (H2O2). En Schizosaccharomyces pombe, dos rutas controlan las respuestas antioxidantes en respuesta a estrés oxidativo por H2O2: la del factor de transcripción Pap1 y la de la MAP quinasa Sty1. En esta tesis doctoral, hemos determinado que la activación de Pap1 se da en respuesta a dosis moderadas, pero no severas, de H2O2. Hemos identificado a la peroxirredoxina Tpx1 como sensor y transmisor de la señal de estrés oxidativo a Pap1. La inactivación temporal de Tpx1, durante estrés oxidativo severo, por oxidación a sulfínico de su cisteína catalítica inhibe la transmisión de señal a Pap1. En dichas condiciones, se activa la ruta de Sty1, que media la inducción de Srx1, cuya función es reducir y, con ello, reactivar a Tpx1. Finalmente, hemos estudiado el papel esencial de Tpx1 en aerobiosis. / Aerobic life involves formation of reactive oxygen species: hydroxyl radical (OH·), superoxide ion (O2·-) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). In Schizosaccharomyces pombe, two pathways respond to H2O2 and trigger independent antioxidant-gene responses: the Pap1 and the Sty1 pathways. In this thesis project, we have determined that the activation of the transcription factor Pap1 occurs only at low, but not elevated, H2O2 concentrations. We have identified the peroxiredoxin Tpx1 as a H2O2-sensor and redox activator of Pap1. The temporal inactivation of Tpx1 during severe oxidative stress, by oxidation of its catalytic cysteine to sulfinic acid, inhibits signal transduction to Pap1. During these conditions, the MAP kinase Sty1 is activated and expression of the sulfiredoxin Srx1 is triggered. Srx1 functions to reduce and thus reactivate Tpx1. Finally, we have analysed the essential function of Tpx1 in aerobiosis.

Part I of this thesis describes the development of bioactive small molecules of relevance to the study of the apicomlexan parasite Toxoplasma gondii into useful chemical tools. The research includes the target identification and validation studies, using both chemical and biological methods. Chapter 1 provides an overview of chemical genetics with a particular emphasis on methods for the identification of the protein targets of bioactive small molecules. The concept of biochemical protein target identification techniques was introduced with a detailed discussion of interesting applications from the literature. Chapter 2 focuses on the development of a tetrahydro-β-carboline based lead molecule into a chemical tool through target identification studies. The structure activity relationship (SAR) data associated with this core structure, the design of a chemical inducer of dimerisation (CID) and the synthesis of this CID are discussed in detail. Chapter 3 described work done to identify the potential protein target(s) of Conoidin A. Experiments to assess whether Conoidin A can inhibit a proposed target in vitro are also included. Further optimisation of this structural class to develop more potent inhibitors is discussed in the second part of this chapter. Part II of this thesis describes the development of methods for the synthesis of medium-sized ring containing compounds using oxidative fragmentation and rearrangement strategies. Chapter 5 provides an overview of the existing oxidative fragmentation methodology, with an emphasis on the use of oxidative fragmentation reactions for the synthesis of medium-sized ring systems (8-11 ring atoms). Chapter 6 focuses on using the established oxidative fragmentation method in the oxizino carbazolone system to investigate the diasteroselectivity of this reaction. Possible mechanisms for this transformation are investigated and discussed using both chemical and computational methods. An interesting rearrangement reaction has also been observed during this study. Chapter 7 focuses on developing an asymmetric oxidative fragmentation method, for use in the diazabenz[e]aceathrylenes system. Asymmetric oxidative fragmentation reactions using [Ru(pybox)(pydic)] catalysts are discussed. Attempts to optimise the enantiomeric excesses of the reaction by varying reaction conditions and substituents in the substrate are also included.

Dans la nature, les plantes sont constamment exposées à des modifications de leur environnement générant un stress oxydant auquel elles doivent s’adapter du fait de leur immobilité. Les végétaux ont donc développé un grand nombre de mécanismes antioxydants permettant de protéger leurs fonctions vitales. L’étude d’une enzyme de type peroxyrédoxine (PRX) localisée dans le chloroplaste montre que son activité antioxydante est importante pour la croissance et la tolérance des végétaux aux contraintes environnementales. De plus, cette PRX pourrait interagir avec d’autres protéines impliquées notamment dans des mécanismes antioxydants et dans le métabolisme du carbone. Parmi elles, une protéine de type fibrilline participant à la protection des structures photosynthétiques, pourrait avec la PRX protéger la photosynthèse, fonction propre aux végétaux et essentielle pour la vie sur terre. / In nature, plants are constantly exposed to environmental changes leading to oxidative stress, to which they must adapt due to their immobility. Plants have developed many antioxidant systems allowing them to maintain their vital functions. The study of a peroxiredoxin, enzyme (PRX) localized in chloroplasts, shows that its direct antioxidant activity is essential for growth and tolerance of plants to environmental constraints. In addition, this PRX could interact with other proteins especially involved in antioxidant mechanisms and carbon metabolism. Among them, fibrillin proteins, which participate in the protection of the photosynthetic structures, could preserve with the PRX the plant photosynthesis, which is essential for the life on earth.

As peroxirredoxinas constituem uma família de tiol-proteínas, que reduzem peróxido de hidrogênio, peróxidos orgânicos e peroxinitrito a água, álcool e nitrito, respectivamente, utilizando equivalentes redutores fornecidos pela tiorredoxina, tiorredoxina redutase e NADPH. As peroxirredoxinas são enzimas abundantes (constituem aproximadamente 0,7 % do total de proteínas solúveis presentes em leveduras) e foram identificadas em diversas espécies de animais, plantas e bactérias, porém seu papel fisiológico ainda é discutido. Até recentemente, as peroxirredoxinas eram consideradas pouco eficientes para detoxificar peróxidos, em comparação às catalases e heme-peroxidases. De fato, as constantes de segunda ordem determinadas para as reações de peroxirredoxinas com peróxido de hidrogênio eram da ordem de 104-105 M-1 s-1, valores muito menores que os de hemeproteínas (~107 M-1 s-1). Neste trabalho, um método de cinética competitiva foi desenvolvido para re-determinar essas constantes de velocidade, utilizando a peroxidase de raiz forte como competidora das peroxirredoxinas de S. cerevisiae, Tsa1 e Tsa2. Este método foi validado e as constantes de velocidade determinadas para Tsa1 e Tsa2 foram da ordem de k~ 107 M-1 s-1 para a reação com peróxido de hidrogênio e da ordem de k~10105 M-1 s-1 para a reação com peroxinitrito. Utilizando a mesma metodologia, foi possível ainda determinar o pKa da cisteína peroxidásica da Tsa1 e Tsa2 (Cys47), como sendo 5,4 e 6,3, respectivamente. Paralelamente, o papel fisiológico das peroxirredoxinas foi examinado em linhagens de S. cerevisiae com deleção de Tsa1, Tsa2 ou de ambas isoformas. Os estudos foram realizados sob condições fermentativas e a linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ se mostrou mais resistente ao peróxido de hidrogênio (1 mM) e o consumiu mais rapidamente que a WT. Além disso, a linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ produziu quantidades mais altas do radical 1-hidroxietila, produto da oxidação do etanol, que é o principal metabólito da levedura em anaerobiose. O mecanismo de formação do radical 1-hidroxietila foi examinado e a quantificação da concentração de ferro quelatável, ferro total e cobre mostrou que a reação de Fenton não era sua principal fonte. Outro mecanismo investigado foi a formação do radical através da atividade peroxidásica da Sod1, cuja expressão e atividade se mostraram aumentadas cerca de 5 e 2 vezes, respectivamente, na linhagem tsa1Δtsa2Δ. Na linhagem mutante ainda foi observado que o tratamento com peróxido de hidrogênio aumentou a concentração de radicais derivados e adutos do DNA, detectados por imuno-spin trapping e incorporação de 14C derivado da glicose. Em conjunto, os resultados deste trabalho reforçam a importância das peroxirredoxinas na defesa antioxidante e mostram que as respostas compensatórias empregadas pela levedura para contornar as deleções de Tsa1 e Tsa2 podem ser deletérias longo prazo. / Peroxiredoxins constitute a family of cysteine-based peroxidases that are able to reduce hydrogen peroxide, organic peroxides and peroxinitrite to water, alcohol and nitrite, respectively, through the use of reducing equivalents provided by thioredoxin, thioredoxin reductase and NADPH. Peroxiredoxins are abundant enzymes (correspond to approximately 0.7% of total soluble protein in yeasts) and have been identified in several species ranging from animals, plants and bacteria, but their physiological role remains under scrutiny. Peoxiredoxins were regarded as less eficient enzymes in comparison with catalases and heme-peroxidases for detoxification of peroxides. Second-order rate constants determined for the reaction of peroxiredoxins with hydrogen peroxide were in the range of 104-105 M-1 s-1, which is quite low, as compared with those of heme-proteins (~107 M-1 s-1). In the present work, a competitive kinetic approach with horseradish peroxidase was developed in order to determine the second order rate constant of the reaction of peroxiredoxins with peroxynitrite and hydrogen peroxide. This method was validated and permitted for the determination of the second order rate constant value of the reaction of Tsa1 and Tsa2 with peroxynitrite (k~105 M-1 s-1) and hydrogen peroxide (k~ 107 M-1 s-1) at pH 7.4, 25 °C. It also permitted the determination of the pKa of the peroxidatic cysteine of Tsa1 and Tsa2 (Cys47) as 5.4 and 6.3, respectively. In parallel, the physiological role of peroxiredoxins was examined in S. cerevisiae strains with deletion of Tsa1, Tsa2 or of both isoforms. Under fermentative conditions, tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells were more resistant to 1 mM hydrogen peroxide than WT cells, and consumed it faster. In addition, tsa1tsa2 cells produced higher yields of the 1- hydroxyethyl radical from the oxidation of the glucose metabolite ethanol, as shown by spintrapping experiments. A major role for Fenton chemistry in radical formation was excluded by comparing WT and tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells with respect to their levels of chelatable iron ions, total iron and copper ions, and of 1-hydroxyethyl radical produced in the presence of metal ion chelators. The main route for 1-hydroxyethyl radical formation was ascribed to the peroxidase activity of Sod1, whose expression and activity increased about five- and twofold, respectively, in tsa1Δtsa2Δ compared to WT cells. Relevantly, tsa1Δtsa2Δ cells challenged with hydrogen peroxide contained higher levels of DNA-derived radicals and adducts as monitored by immuno-spin trapping and incorporation of 14C from glucose into DNA, respectively. Taken together, our results reinforce the importance of peroxiredoxins in the antioxidant defense show that the compensatory responses employed by yeast to counterbalance the deletions of Tsa1 and Tsa2 may be deleterious in the long time range.

Les peroxyrédoxines sont des enzymes essentielles de la cellule. Outre leur rôle d’antioxydant, elles sont aussi des régulateurs de la signalisation cellulaire et des suppresseurs de tumeurs. La péroxiredoxine 1 (Prx1) est la plus abondante parmi les six isoformes de peroxyrédoxines humaines. Elle est fréquemment surexprimée dans plusieurs types de cellules cancéreuses, et on a pu associer Prx1 aux processus de carcinogenèse et de métastase, ainsi qu’à la résistance à la radiothérapie ou la chimiothérapie. Ainsi, Prx1 pourrait donc être une cible anticancéreuse intéressante. Au cours de ce travail de thèse, nous avons d’abord évalué l'impact d’une diminution de Prx1 (Prx1 knockdown (Prx1–)) sur la sensibilité cellulaire à des dizaines de médicaments anticancéreux dont la vinblastine, le taxol, la doxorubicine, la daunorubicine, l’actinomycine D, et le 5-fluorouracile, et d’agents connus pour provoquer la production d’espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ROS), dont le peroxyde d'hydrogène, le 2-phényléthyle isothiocyanate, le β-lapachone (β-lap) et la ménadione. Nous avons mis en évidence qu’une diminution de Prx1 augmente significativement la sensibilité des cellules à l'effet cytotoxique de la β-lap et de la ménadione, deux naphtoquinones possédant une activité anti-tumorale.Nous avons étudié les mécanismes responsables de l'augmentation de la cytotoxicité de la β-lap dans un contexte Prx1–. Nous montrons que la toxicité accrue de la β-lap dans des cellules Prx1– est due à une accumulation intracellulaire de ROS. Cet effet est dépendant de l’activité NADPH quinone oxydoréductase (NQO1) et s’accompagne d’une phosphorylation de c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), protein 38 (p38), extracellular signal-regulated kinases (Erk) et des mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), mais aussi d’une diminution des niveaux protéiques de la thiorédoxine 1. En se basant sur le fait que Prx1 est une enzyme antioxydante et un partenaire d'au moins ASK1 et JNK, deux éléments clés de la voie MAPK, nous proposons que la sensibilisation à la β-lap, observée après diminution de Prx1, est provoquée par une action synergique entre l'accumulation de ROS et l'induction de la voie MAPK, conduisant ainsi à l'apoptose.Nous avons ensuite étudié les mécanismes responsables de l'augmentation de la cytotoxicité de la ménadione dans le contexte Prx1–. La sensibilité accrue des cellules à l'effet cytotoxique de la ménadione et également associée à l'accumulation rapide et massive des ROS intracellulaire et à une mort cellulaire ressemblant à la nécrose programmée (necroptosis). L’accumulation de ROS induite par la ménadione et très rapidement détectée dans le cytosol, le noyau, et de façon encore plus importante, dans la matrice mitochondriale. Ce phénomène est en corrélation avec l'oxydation importante des thiorédoxine 2 et peroxiredoxine 3, deux protéines antioxydantes localisées dans la mitochondrie. La diminution de l’expression de Prx1 s’accompagne d’une augmentation des quantités tant de l’ARNm que de la protéine NRH: quinone oxydoréductase 2 (NQO2). Cette augmentation de l'activité de NQO2 est en grande partie responsable de l'accumulation intracellulaire de ROS et de la mort cellulaire après le traitement à la ménadione. Nos données révèlent que l’accumulation de ROS dans les cellules Prx1– provient de la résultante entre l’augmentation de leur production par NQO2 au cours du métabolisme de la ménadione et la diminution de leur élimination par Prx1. Enfin et de façon surprenante, selon la nature des naptoquinones (β-lap ou ménadione), les voies métaboliques qui conduisent à l'accumulation des ROS, ou les voies de signalisation et les mécanismes de mort cellulaire impliqués semblent être distincts. / Peroxiredoxins have multiple cellular functions as major antioxidants, signaling regulators, molecular chaperones and tumor suppressors. Peroxiredoxin 1 (Prx1) is the most abundant among the six isoforms of human peroxiredoxins. It is frequently over-expressed in various cancer cells, which is known associated with carcinogenesis, metastasis and resistance to radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Prx1 could thus be an interesting anticancer target. In this study, we first evaluated the impact of Prx1 knockdown (Prx1–) on cellular sensitivity to dozens of anticancer drugs including vinblastine, taxol, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, actinomycin D, and 5-fluorouracil, and of reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating agents, including hydrogen peroxide, 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate, β-lapachone (β-lap) and menadione. We observed that Prx1 knockdown significantly enhanced cancer cell sensitivity to β-lap and menadione, two naphthoquinones with anti-cancer activity.We first investigated the underlying mechanisms responsible for the specifically enhanced cytotoxicity to β-lap in a Prx1 knockdown context. Prx1 knockdown markedly potentiated β-lap-induced cytotoxicity through ROS accumulation. This effect was largely NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1)-dependent and associated with the phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNK), protein 38 (p38) and extracellular signal-regulated kinases (Erk) proteins in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways, and a decrease in thioredoxin 1 protein levels. Based on the fact that Prx1 is a major ROS scavenger and a partner of apoptosis signaling kinase 1 (ASK1) and JNK, two key components of MAPK pathways, we propose that Prx1 knockdown-induced sensitization to β-lap is achieved through the combined action of ROS accumulation and MAPK pathway activation, leading to cell apoptosis.We then investigated the underlying mechanisms responsible for the specifically enhanced cytotoxicity to menadione in Prx1– cells. Enhanced sensitivity to menadione was associated with a rapid and significant intracellular ROS accumulation and necroptotic-like cell death. Menadione-induced ROS accumulation occurred immediately in the cytosol, the nucleus, and even more noticeably in the mitochondrial matrix, correlated with significant oxidation of both mitochondria-localized thioredoxin 2 and peroxiredoxin 3. Prx1 knockdown significantly up-regulated mRNA and protein levels of NRH: quinone oxidoreductase 2 (NQO2). Increased activity of NQO2 was largely responsible for menadione-induced ROS accumulation and consequent cell death. Our data indicate that massive ROS accumulation results from the combined effect of increased ROS generation by higher NQO2 activity during menadione metabolism, and diminished Prx1 scavenging activity. Finally and noteworthy, the metabolic pathways that lead to ROS accumulation, downstream signaling pathways and cell death mechanisms appear to be distinct for β-lap and menadione.