Peroxinitrito é um potente agente oxidante, nitrante e nucleofilico formado in vivo pela reação difusional do radical ânion superóxido com óxido nítrico, cuja produção exacerbada em situações de estresse oxidativo e nitrosativo pode resultar em danos a biomoléculas e estruturas sub-celulares. Por outro lado, vários compostos carbonílicos reativos tais como acroleína e compostos α-dicarbonílicos são descritos como citotóxicos e genotóxicos, pois reagem com biomoléculas aminadas resultando em perda de funções nativas, situação esta denominada de \"estresse carbonílico\". Dentre os metabólitos α-dicarbonílicos, altamente suscetíveis a adições nucleofílicas, destacam-se o biacetilo, derivado do metabolismo hepático de etanol e contaminante de alimentos, e metilglioxal e glioxal, ambos catabólitos de glicose, proteínas e lipídios acumulados em doenças relacionadas ao envelhecimento. Neste trabalho, observou-se que, em tampão fosfato normalmente aerado de pH próximo à neutralidade, (i) estes três compostos sofrem adição nucleofílica de peroxinitrito com constantes de velocidade de segunda ordem uma a três ordens de grandeza acima dos valores relatados para compostos monocarbonílicos (k2 ≈ 4-100 M-1s-1); (ii) os sistemas biacetilo ou metilglioxal/peroxinitrito consomem o oxigênio dissolvido com produção de acetato ou acetato e formiato, respectivamente, via radical acetila capaz de acetilar histidina, lisina e 2\'-desoxiguanosina se adicionados à mistura reacional; e (iii) o sistema glioxal/peroxinitrito gera sucessivamente radical formila e radical formilhidroperoxila, cujo desproporcionamento a formiato e gás carbônico é acompanhado da emissão de luz no infra-vermelho próximo (λmax = 1270 nm), atribuída a oxigênio molecular no estado singlete (O21Δg) (Reação de Russell). Estes estudos evidenciam que a reação de metabólitos α-dicarbonílicos com peroxinitrito gera radicais livres e embasam a hipótese de que possam contribuir para a acetilação radicalar, não-enzimática intracelular, de proteínas (epigenética) e DNA, portanto potencialmente implicadas na fisiologia e patologia do envelhecimento e desordens metabólicas, nas quais a participação de espécies reativas de oxigênio, nitrogênio e compostos carbonílicos foi relatada. Deve-se ainda notar que a descoberta de acetilação radicalar de biomoléculas por metabólitos α-dicarbonilicos e peroxinitrito prepara o caminho para a identificação de novas reações químicas de biomoléculas, não catalisadas por enzimas, que possam eventualmente revelar novos biomarcadores teciduais em doenças adquiridas e inatas. / Peroxynitrite is a strong biological oxidant, nitrating and nucleophilic agent, formed by the diffusion-controlled reaction of the superoxide anion radical with nitric oxide, whose exacerbated production in oxidative and nitrosative stress leads to chemical damage to biomolecules and sub-cellular structures. On the other hand, various reactive carbonyl compounds like acrolein and α-dicarbonyls are reportedly cytotoxic and genotoxic for their ability to react with amino biomolecules resulting in loss of native functions, a situation named \"carbonyl stress\". Among very reactive α-dicarbonyls highly prone to nucleophilic additions, we highlight biacetyl, a hepatic alcohol metabolite and food contaminant, and methylglyoxal and glyoxal, both catabolites of glucose, proteins and lipids that accumulate in ageing-related disorders. Here, we report that, in normally aerated phosphate buffer near the physiological pH, (i) these three dicarbonyls undergo nucleophilic addition of peroxynitrite whose second order rate constants are one to three orders of magnitude than those documented for monocarbonyls (k2 ≈ 4-100 M-1s-1); (ii) the biacetyl or methylglyoxal/peroxynitrite systems consume the dissolved oxygen yielding the acetate anion or acetate plus formate anion, respectively, from acetyl radical intermediate which was found to acetylate added histidine, lysine and 2\'-deoxyguanosine; and (iii) the glyoxal/peroxynitrite system ultimately generate formyl radical and formylperoxyl radical, whose dismutation to formate and carbonic oxide is accompanied by near infrared monomol emission (λmax = 1270 nm) characteristic of singlet molecular oxygen (O21Δg) (Russell reaction). Our studies strongly attest that the reaction of α-dicarbonyls with peroxynitrite release free radicals that can potentially contribute for the radical, non-enzymatic acetylation of proteins (epigenetics) and DNA bases possibly implicated in the ageing physiopathology and metabolic disorders, where participation of reactive oxygen, nitrogen and carbonyl species is well recognized. Also noteworthy is that our findings may pave the way to the discovery of novel biochemical reactions whose products can eventually be useful as biomarkers of acquired and innate maladies.

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No / Vitiligo is characterized by a mostly progressive loss of the inherited skin color. The cause of the disease is still unknown, despite accumulating in vivo and in vitro evidence of massive oxidative stress via hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxynitrite (ONOO−) in the skin of affected individuals. The most favored hypothesis is based on autoimmune mechanisms. Since depletion of the essential amino acid l-tryptophan (Trp) severely affects various immune responses, we here looked at Trp metabolism and signaling in these patients. Our in vivo and in vitro data revealed total absence of epidermal Trp hydroxylase activities and the presence of H2O2/ONOO− deactivated indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor signaling is severely impaired despite the ligand (Trp dimer) being formed, as shown by mass spectrometry. Loss of this signal is supported by the absence of downstream signals (COX-2 and CYP1A1) as well as regulatory T-lymphocytes and by computer modeling. In vivo Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy confirmed the presence of Trp metabolites together with H2O2 supporting deprivation of the epidermal Trp pool by Fenton chemistry. Taken together, our data support a long-expressed role for in loco redox balance and a distinct immune response. These insights could open novel treatment strategies for this disease.—Schallreuter, K. U., Salem, M. A. E. L., Gibbons, N. C. J., Maitland, D. J., Marsch, E., Elwary, S., Healey, A. R. Blunted epidermal l-tryptophan metabolism in vitiligo affects immune response and ROS scavenging by Fenton chemistry, part 2: epidermal H2O2/ONOO−-mediated stress in vitiligo hampers indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase and aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated immune response signaling.

Numerous chemical species are important to the health of biological systems. Some species can be beneficial at low doses and harmful at high doses. Other species are highly reactive and trigger serious cell damage. Improved methods to detect the presence and activity of such species are needed. In this work, several biologically important species were studied using appropriate analytical techniques. Fluoride is an important species in human physiology. It strengthens teeth and gives protection against dental caries. However, elevated concentrations of fluoride in the body can lead to health problems such as dental and skeletal fluorosis. Reported fluoride sensors used fluorescence quenching methods in determining fluoride concentration. Our study explored synthesis and characterization of 1,8-bis(phenylthioureido) naphthalene (compound 1) as a fluoride sensing molecule. Compound 1 showed a remarkable 40 fold enhancement in fluorescence with 5 eq of fluoride addition. Compound 1 also showed possibility of visual colorimetric sensing with fluoride. Free radical mediated oxidations of biomolecules are responsible for different pathological conditions in the human body. Superoxide is generated in cells and tissues during oxidative burst. Moderately reactive superoxide is converted to peroxyl, alkoxyl and hydroxyl radicals by various enzymatic, chemical, and biochemical processes. Hydroxyl radical imparts rapid, non specific oxidative damage to biomolecules such as proteins and lipids. Superoxide also reacts with nitric oxide in cells to yield peroxynitrite, which is highly reactive and damages biomolecules. Both hydroxyl radical and peroxynitrite readily react with amino acids containing aromatic side chains. Low density lipoprotein (LDL) carries cholesterol in the human body. Elevated concentration of LDL is a potential risk factor for atherosclerosis. Previous research drew a strong correlation between oxidized low density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) and plaque formation in the arterial wall. More importantly, oxidative damage causes structural changes to the LDL protein (apo B-100) which might facilitate the uptake of LDL by macrophages. In this study LDL was exposed to various concentrations of hydroxyl radical peroxynitrite and hypochlorite. Thereafter oxidized amino acid residues in apo B-100 were mapped by LC-MS/MS methods. We found widely distributed oxidative modifications in the apo B-100 amino acid sequence.

A astaxantina (AST) é um carotenóide derivado do β-caroteno produzido por algas e cianobactérias, mas que também pode ser encontrada em animais marinhos. Em animais, é reportada como interceptadora de radicais de oxigênio mais eficiente que o β-caroteno. O objetivo central dessa dissertação foi avaliar a capacidade antioxidante da AST em lipossomos enriquecidos com citocromo c (cit c) desafiados com 3-morfolinosidnonimina (SIN-1), um doador de óxido nítrico, em diferentes microambientes (pH e composição das vesículas). Diferenças na interação destas vesículas com o cit c periférico, com reflexos na atividade antioxidante da AST também foram avaliadas. O SIN-1 gera, por termólise, quantidades equimolares de radical superóxido e óxido nítrico, quando há oxigênio no meio. Vesículas unilamelares de fosfatidilcolina (PC), PC contendo 5% ou 10% de fosfatidilglicerol (PG), com ou sem AST, foram incubadas com SIN-1 e/ou cit c. Medidas do índice de lipoperoxidação pelo teste das substâncias reativas ao ácido tiobarbitúrico (TBARS) revelaram que SIN-1 não causa aumento de TBARS, enquanto o cit c foi capaz de aumentar significativamente este índice. Este fato pode ser explicado pela atividade peroxidásica do cit c. Apenas em vesículas de PCPG10%, ao realizar a incubação do cit c concomitantemente com SIN-1, o índice de TBARS foi maior ao observado em vesículas incubadas apenas com cit c. É conhecido que a interação entre cit c e membranas aniônicas pode alterar a conformação da proteína, aumentando sua atividade peroxidásica. A presença da AST fez com que os índices de lipoperoxidação chegassem a valores próximos aos do controle. A alteração no pH do meio revelou que a AST possui ação antioxidante mais pronunciada em pHs 7,4 e 8,0, em comparação com pHs levemente ácidos. A presença de PG evidenciou ainda mais esta tendência e em pH 6,2, a AST apresentou inclusive pequena atividade próoxidante. Estes resultados podem ser discutidos à luz de alterações da permeabilidade da membrana e da reatividade de espécies reativas induzidas por mudanças da fluidez e de pH. O efeito dos produtos gerados por SIN-1 sobre o cit c foi estudado em condições de normóxia e hipóxia. Resultados de EPR e de fluorescência demonstram que a presença do radical superóxido previne lesões oxidativas causada por peróxido orgânico (t-butOOH) tanto no cit c quanto nas membranas, pois é capaz de reduzir o ferro hemínico do cit c. Através de CD e espectrofotometria UV-Vis e EPR, foi observado que a incubação com SIN-1 promove alterações estruturais no cit c causando ruptura na sexta coordenação do ferro hemínico, levando à geração de uma espécie de cit c com rombicidade menor em comparação ao cit c nativo e que apresenta maior atividade peroxidásica. Este trabalho contribui com informações para entendimento do mecanismo antioxidante da AST em diferentes microambientes, além de demonstrar o efeito paradoxal do superóxido que é capaz de proteger o cit c, através da redução do ferro hemínico, mas também pode expor a proteína à oxidação promovida por peroxinitrito. / Astaxanthin (AST) is a β-carotene derived carotenoid, produced by algae and cyanobacteria, but can also be found in marine animals. In phytoplankton it has the function to absorb light radiation for photosinthesys occurence. In animals AST acts as a scavenger of oxygen free radicals, even more efficiently than β-carotene itself. The main objective of this work is to evaluate the antioxidant capacity of AST over cytochrome c (cyt c) incorporated in liposomes and challenged with 3-morpholinosidnonimine (SIN-1), a nitric oxide donor, under different experimental conditions, namely vesicles composition and pH. Distinct interactions between cyt c and vesicles affecting the AST antioxidant activity were also evaluated. SIN-1 spontaneously generates equal amount of nitric oxide and superoxide anion when oxygen is present. Unilamellar vesicles made from phosphatidylcholine (PC) or PC with 5% or 10% of phosphatidylglycerol (PG), with or without AST, were incubated with SIN-1 and/or cyt c. The extent of lipid peroxidation was evaluated by the classical method of thiobarbituric reactive substances (TBARS). Control experiments with SIN-1 alone showed no increase in TBARS content, whereas cyt c significantly increased TBARS. Concomitant addition of cyt c, SIN-1 to PCPG10% vesicles led to lipid peroxidation indices even higher than those found when cyt c was incubated with PCPG10% vesicles. A peroxidase activity of cyt c resulting from the interaction between this protein and anionic membranes can explain this result. In this system, the presence of AST inhibited formation of TBARS, whose levels were near the control values. Astaxanthin was found to exhibit a more effective antioxidant capacity under basic pH (7.4 and 8.0), in comparison with pH 6.2 and 6.8. In the presence of PG, this trend became more evident. Interestingly, at pH 6.2, AST showed a slight pro-oxidant activity. These results can be explained by differences in membrane permeability and reactivity of reactive species, caused by pH and membrane fluidity alterations. The effects of products of SIN-1 decomposition on cyt c structure and its peroxidase activity were investigated under hypoxia and normoxia. EPR and fluorescence experiments revealed that superoxide anion radical, due to its ability to reduce heme iron, prevents oxidative damage of cyt c and membrane lipids by peroxide-derived free radicals. By means of CD and UV-Visible spectroscopy, we have found that concomitant incubation of SIN-1 and cyt c promoted structural alterations in the protein which changes the irons sixth axial coordination, leading to generation of a less rhombic cyt c, which is reportedly a better peroxidase than native cyt c. This work contributes with information aiming to better understand the antioxidant mechanism of AST under different membrane microenvironments and unveil a paradoxal effect of superoxide ion, which can protect cyt c from oxidative lesions by transferring electron to ferricyt c, but can also expose cyt c to oxidation by peroxynitrite.

Neste trabalho foram investigados os mecanismos e o perfil cinético de processos nitrosativos do ponto de vista da nitrosação do indicador 4,5-diamino fluoresceina (DAF2) em células do tipo RAW 264.7. Também foi investigado o papel que ferro lábil (LIP) exerce em tais processos. O estudo cinético mostrou que a nitrosação do DAF2 é dependente de superóxido intracelular e se processa por dois mecanismos distintos denominados nitrosilação oxidativa e nitrosação. Observou-se que o perfil cinético da nitrosaçao do DAF2 sofre uma transição passando de dependente para independente com relação à concentração de NO, quando a concentração de NO se aproxima de 100-110nM. Este perfil está relacionado com a dinâmica de recombinação entre NO e O2¯ que dispara todo o processo de nitrosação do DAF2. No trabalho fica claro que processos nitrosativos que ocorrem pelos mesmos mecanismos podem apresentar perfis cinéticos completamente diferentes dependendo da localização onde ocorre a recombinação entre NO e O2¯. O ponto mais interessante foi a constatação de que quelantes permeáveis à membranas biológicas estimulam a nitrosação do DAF2 intracelular. Este efeito é decorrente da remoção de LIP intracelular que, surpreendementemente, apresenta papel antinitrosativo nas condições experimentais estudadas. O papel incomum antinitrosativo apresentado por LIP é analizado do ponto de vista da reação entre LIP e ONOO¯ que tem como produto nitrito, uma espécie não nitrosante. Estes resultados podem alterar a forma como LIP é visto em processos oxidativos e nitrosativos. / In this work, we investigated the mechanisms and kinetic profiles of nitrosative processes using fluorescent indicator 4,5-diaminofluorescein (DAF2) in RAW 264.7 cells. The labile iron pool (LIP) influence in nitrosative processes was also evaluated. Intracellular DAF2 nitrosation is superoxide dependent and proceeds by two distinct mechanisms: Oxidative nitrosylation and nitrosation. The former mechanism is the most relevant under all experimental conditions tested. Interestingly, the DAF2 nitrosation rate increases linearly with NO concentration of up 100-110 nM but thereafter undergoes a sharp transition and becomes insensitive to NO. This peculiar kinetic behavior has never been reported and it is linked with NO and superoxide recombination dynamics. When NO reaches a concentration capable to outcompete superoxide dismutase for superoxide, the rate of DAF2 nitrosation becomes insensitive to NO. The most striking finding is the LIP´s influence in nitrosative processes. LIP removal by cell membrane permeable metal chelantors increases DAF2 nitrosation rate significantly, suggesting tha LIP can act as an anti-nitrosant species. This increase is probably related with LIP´s direct reaction with peroxynitrite, wich produces non-nitrosant species like nitrite. This controversial LIP´s anti-nitrosative role in cellular systems is rather interesting since it can change the way we understand it´s role in nitrosative and oxidative processes.

Le monoxyde d'azote (NO*) et l'anion peroxynitrite (ONOO−) sont deux molécules jouant un rôle clé dans de nombreuses pathologies dont certains cancers, les maladies de Parkinson et Alzheimer, ainsi que les traumatismes crâniens. Ce travail décrit le développement de capteurs électrochimiques permettant la détection simultanée de ces deux analytes d'intérêt biologique. Pour atteindre cet objectif, des dispositifs intégrant plusieurs réseaux d'ultramicroélectrodes (UMEs) d'or ont été fabriqués, à l'aide de techniques photolithographiques. La caractérisation électrochimique de ces réseaux montre qu'ils permettent d'améliorer la sensibilité des mesures, en comparaison avec des UMEs individuelles. Afin de rendre la mesure de NO* sélective vis-à-vis des interférents biologiques, nous avons d'abord étudié l'influence de plusieurs types de membranes électropolymérisées à la surface des électrodes. Ceci nous a permis d'identifier une combinaison de membranes de polyeugénol et polyphénol conférant une bonne sélectivité au capteur. Par la suite, nous nous sommes intéressés à la mise au point d'une méthode de détection électrochimique de ONOO−, basée sur la réduction de son acide conjugué à une électrode d'or non modifiée. À la suite de ces études, la détection électrochimique simultanée de NO* et ONOO− a été réalisée dans des solutions synthétiques. Enfin, nous décrivons la détection de NO* produit par des cellules vivantes, les macrophages RAW 264.7.

<p>In the present thesis the density functional B3LYP has been used to study reactions of NO and O₂ in redox active enzymes.</p><p>Reduction of nitric oxide (NO) to nitrous oxide (N₂O) is an important part in the bacterial energy conservation (denitrification). The reduction of NO in three different bimetallic active sites leads to the formation of hyponitrous acid anhydride (N₂O₂^2-). The stability of this intermediate is crucial for the reaction rate. In the two diiron systems, respiratory and scavenging types of NOR, it is possible to cleave the N-O bond, forming N₂O, without any extra protons or electrons. In a heme-copper oxidase, on the other hand, both a proton and an electron are needed to form N₂O.</p><p>In addition to being an intermediate in the denitrification, NO is a toxic agent. Myoglobin in the oxy-form reacts with NO forming nitrate (NO₃ ^-) at a high rate, which should make this enzyme an efficient NO scavenger. Peroxynitrite (ONOO^-) is formed as a short-lived intermediate and isomerizes to nitrate through a radical reaction.</p><p>In the mechanism for pumping protons in cytochrome oxidase, thermodynamics, rather than structural changes, might guide protons to the heme propionate for further translocation.</p><p>The dioxygenation of arachidonic acid in prostaglandin endoperoxide H synthase forms the bicyclic prostaglandin G₂, through a cascade of radical reactions. The mechanism proposed by Hamberg and Samuelsson is energetically feasible.</p>