Le développement des nanotechnologies dans le domaine médical a suscité un engouement considérable ces dernières années, notamment l’utilisation de nanoparticules pour la vectorisation de principes actifs. Les nanoparticules offrent des perspectives uniques pour la vectorisation et la délivrance de principes actifs qu’ils soient des gènes (thérapie génique),des anti-cancéreux (chimiothérapie) ou encore des agents photosensibilisateurs (photothérapie dynamique, TPD). Le défi majeur reste cependant l’acheminement des molécules thérapeutiques jusqu’à leur site d’action, tout en gardant leur intégrité ainsi que leur effet thérapeutique.L’axe de recherche de cette thèse est l’utilisation des nanocapsules lipidiques comme plateforme multifonctionnelle pour la délivrance de principes actifs. Un des objectifs étant le développement de nanocapsules lipidiques, stables de point de vue physico-chimique, et fonctionnalisées avec du polyéthylèneimine capables de délivrer efficacement un plasmide ADN et un anti-cancéreux (paclitaxel) dans le cadre d’une thérapie combinée. Les applications de ces nanovecteurs pour la transfectionde gènes et la vectorisation de chimiothérapeutique in vitro ont été réalisées.Par ailleurs, l’aptitude de nanocapsules lipidiques à vectoriser des agents photosensibilisants pour la thérapie photodynamique a été aussi étudiée in vitro, et les résultats ont montré que l’encapsulation de deux molécules de PS dans les nanocapsules permet une synergie de l’effet photodynamique tout en gardant les propriétés physico-chimiques de chaque PS. Enfin, l’encapsulation d’un agoniste au canal ionique TRPM8, le menthol, fait l’objet du dernier chapitre. L’étude par imagerie calcique du relargage de cette molécule lipophile in vitro a permis de confirmer le potentiel des NCL comme nanovecteurs de principes actifs. / The development of nanotechnology in the medical field has attracted considerable interest in recent years, including the use of nanoparticles for drug delivery. Nanoparticles offer unique opportunities for delivery of active drugs such as genes (gene therapy), anti-cancer (chemotherapy) or photosensitizers (photodynamic therapy, PDT). The major challenge, however, remains the delivery of therapeutic molecules to their site of action while keeping their integrity and their therapeutic effect.The research focus of this thesis is the use of lipid nanocapsules as a multifunctional platform for the delivery of drugs. One goal is the development of stable lipid nanocapsules, functionalized with polyethyleneimine and capable of effectively delivering a plasmid DNA and an anti-cancer (paclitaxel) as part of a combination therapy. The applications of these nanocarriers for transfection and delivery of chemotherapeutic were performed in vitro.Moreover, the ability of lipid nanocapsules to encapsulate photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy has been studied in vitro, and the results showed that the encapsulation of two molecules of PS in the nanocapsules allows a synergy photodynamic effect while protecting the PS from photo degradation.Finally, encapsulating an ion channel TRPM8 agonist (menthol) is the subject of the last chapter. The study by calcium imaging of the release of this lipophilic molecule in vitro confirmed the potential of lipid nanocapsules as nanocarriers of drugs.

O gênero Neoscytalidium está crescentemente sendo associado às infecções superficiais e profundas causadas em pacientes imunocomprometidos e imunocompetentes. O fungo filamentoso Neoscytalidium dimidiatum é um microrganismo saprofítico e fitopatogênico, encontrado no solo e vegetação de regiões de clima tropical e subtropical. N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum e N. dimidiatum estão envolvidos em infecções superficiais de pele e unha sendo que a espécie produtora de melanina, N. dimidiatum, está associado preferencialmente a infecções profundas sugerindo que a espécie variante não produtora de melanina, N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum, pode ser menos virulenta que a pigmentada. Pouco é descrito na literatura sobre as variedades em questão tanto em relação à sensibilidade a drogas antifúngicas e ao tratamento fotodinâmico antimicrobiano (TFDA), bem como a características fisiológicas referentes à tolerância a variações de temperatura e pH. Assim, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo o estudo de isolados clínicos de N. dimidiatum e N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum obtidos de infecções de pele e unha. Neste estudo foram realizadas a identificação molecular, a filogenia multilocus, a verificação in vitro do desenvolvimento em diferentes temperaturas e pHs e a caracterização in vitro do perfil de susceptibilidade a antifúngicos e TFDA com fotossensibilizadores (FSs) fenotiazínicos, bem como os efeitos do TFDA nas biomoléculas dos artroconídios das variedades estudadas. A filogenia multilocus foi realizada pelo sequenciamento de sete diferentes loci onde foi evidenciado polimorfismo na região Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) 1 e nos genes ?-Tubulina (TUB), Fator de Alongamento de cadeia 1? (EF1) e Histona H3 (HH3). O agrupamento dos isolados clínicos deste estudo em genótipos distintos permitiu a separação em 6 tipos de sequência (TSs), sendo que o TS5 foi composto apenas pela espécie variante N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum. A análise de desenvolvimento em diferentes temperaturas e pHs demonstrou um tamanho de colônia reduzido para todos os isolados de N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum. Anfotericina B, voriconazol e terbinafina foram os antifúngicos mais eficientes para ambas variedades. Os valores das concentrações inibitórias mínimas (CIMs) encontrados para os derivados azólicos foram baixos para todos os isolados clínicos de N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum. Os isolados clínicos de N. dimidiatum mostraram ser menos sensível ao TFDA com os FSs azul de metileno (MB), novo azul de metileno N (NMBN), azul de toluidina O (TBO) e novo derivado sintético (S137) quando comparado à variedade hialina. NMBN e S137 mostraram maior eficiência para inativação de Neoscytalidium spp. Adicionalmente, no TFDA todos os FSs apresentaram efeito de permeabilidade de membrana plasmática, embora somente NMBN e S137 apresentaram a produção de Malondialdeido (MDA), isto é, causaram a peroxidação lipídica nos artroconídios de N. dimidiatum e da variedade hialina / Neoscytalidium sp. is increasingly being associated with superficial and deep infections in immunocompromised and immunocompetent patients. The filamentous fungus Neoscytalidium dimidiatum is a saprophytic and plant pathogenic microorganism that is found in soil and vegetation of tropical and subtropical regions. N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum and N. dimidiatum are involved in superficial skin and nail infections. The melanin producer N. dimidiatum is preferably associated with deep infections suggesting that the clinical isolate without melanin, N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum, may be less virulent than the pigmented variety. Little is described in the literature regarding the varieties N. dimidiatum and N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum about the sensitivity to antifungal drugs and photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT), and the physiological characteristics related to the growth at different temperature and pH. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate clinical isolates of N. dimidiatum and N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum obtained from skin and nail infections. Here in this study were performed the molecular identification, multilocus phylogeny, the in vitro characterization of development at different temperatures and pHs, and the characterization of in vitro susceptibility to antifungal agents and PACT with phenotiazinium photosensitizers (PSs), as well the PACT effects on the biomolecules of the Neoscytalidium spp. arthroconidia. The multilocus phylogeny was performed by sequencing seven different loci where polymorphism were identified in the Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) 1 region of rDNA and in the genes ?-tubulin (TUB), elongation factor 1? (EF1) and Histone H3 (HH3). The grouping of the clinical isolates from this study in different genotypes allowed the clustering in 6 sequence types (ST), in which the ST5 was composed exclusively by all N dimidiatum var. hyalinum isolates from this study. The analysis of development at different temperatures and pHs showed a reduced colony size for all N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum isolates. Amphotericin B, voriconazole and terbinafine were the most effective antifungal for both varieties. The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) values found for the azoles derivatives were low for all N. dimidiatum var. hyalinum isolates. N. dimidiatum clinical isolates have shown to be less sensitive to PACT with the PS methylene blue (MB), new methylene blue (NMBN), toluidine blue O (TBO) and new synthetic derivative (S137) when compared to hyaline variety. NMBN and S137 have shown more effectiveness for the inactivation of Neoscytalidium spp. Additionally, all PS in PACT have caused plasma membrane permeability, although only NMBN and S137 showed the production of malondialdehyde (MDA), i.e., caused lipid peroxidation in both N. dimidiatum and hyaline variety

[ES] La luz solar es necesaria para la vida en la Tierra y sus efectos beneficiosos están fuera de toda duda. Sin embargo, la radiación ultravioleta (UV), que forma parte del espectro solar, puede resultar dañina para los seres vivos dado que es capaz de producir mutaciones en el ADN, íntimamente relacionadas con la aparición de cáncer de piel. El daño al ADN puede producirse tanto por absorción directa de la radiación UV por parte de esta biomolécula como mediante procesos fotosensibilizados, principales responsables en el caso del rango de radiación UVA, que representa el 90% de la radiación ultravioleta que llega a la superficie terrestre. De este modo, pese a que el ADN apenas absorbe este tipo luz, se pueden producir daños en el material genético debido a la presencia de compuestos fotosensibilizantes en su entorno que sí absorben en la zona UVA. En este contexto, la presente Tesis Doctoral se centra en el daño fotosensibilizado al ADN, y más concretamente en la elucidación de los mecanismos de los procesos involucrados en la formación de dímeros de pirimidina en el estado excitado triplete. Para ello se ha estudiado la fotoquímica de distintos modelos de ADN de complejidad creciente, usando como fotosensibilizador 2'-metoxiacetofenona (2M). En primer lugar, se ha llevado a cabo la caracterización completa de este fotosensibilizador mediante espectroscopía de absorción transitoria UV-Vis (Capítulo 3 de la Tesis). Se ha estudiado en profundidad su estado excitado triplete, determinándose su espectro, tiempo de vida, constante de desactivación por un modelo de timina y capacidad para producir 1O2. Con ello se pretende demostrar su potencial como fotosensibilizador del ADN, no solo para la formación de dímeros ciclobutánicos (DCB), sino también de daño oxidativo. En base a los resultados obtenidos se ha confirmado la idoneidad de 2M como fotosensibilizador del ADN y su idoneidad para estudios mecanísticos, por lo que se ha empleado en el Capítulo 4 para determinar la naturaleza del paso dominante de la velocidad de reacción en la ciclodimerización fotosensibilizada de modelos homo y heterobipirimidínicos unidos por puentes polimetilénicos y con distinta sustitución en la posición C5. La irradiación selectiva de 2M en presencia de estos modelos da lugar en todos los casos a la formación de sus correspondientes DCB, demostrando la eficiencia del proceso fotosensibilizado. El análisis de la cinética de reacción para cada compuesto ha permitido establecer su orden relativo de reactividad, que se ha justificado a través de un estudio fotofísico en el que variando la sustitución y la longitud del puente se ha demostrado que ocurre un cambio desde un proceso gobernado por el proceso de dimerización intrínseca en el estado excitado a un proceso controlado por la transferencia de energía entre el fotosensibilizador y la nucleobase. Finalmente, en el Capítulo 5 se explora la fotosensibilización bifotónica de derivados pirimidínicos, siguiendo una nueva aproximación más general que la existente en la bibliografía y que evita el esfuerzo sintético de unir covalentemente el fotosensibilizador al modelo estudiado. Esta aproximación se basa en la absorción de un primer fotón por la 2M, seguida de una transferencia de energía triplete-triplete a una pirimidina, que recibe un segundo fotón para alcanzar un estado triplete superior que da lugar a una nueva química, desde este estado de alta energía. La viabilidad de dicha aproximación se ha demostrado mediante el estudio de dos reacciones modelo, la fotorreacción Norrish-Yang y la fotohidratación de dos derivados de uracilo. / [CA] La llum solar és necessària per a la vida a la Terra i els seus efectes beneficiosos estan fora de tot dubte. No obstant això, la radiació ultraviolada (UV), que forma part de l'espectre solar, pot resultar nociva per als éssers vius atés que és capaç de produir mutacions en l'ADN que estan íntimament relacionades amb l'aparició de càncer de pell. El dany a l'ADN pot produir-se tant per absorció directa de la radiació UV com mitjançant processos de fotosensibilització. Aquests tenen especial importància en el cas de la radiació UVA, que representa el 90% de la radiació ultraviolada que arriba a la superfície terrestre. Malgrat que l'ADN gairebé no absorbeix aquest tipus de llum, aquesta és capaç de modificar el material genètic amb la presència de compostos fotosentibilitzadors al seu voltant, els quals sí absorbeixen la radiació UVA. Aquesta Tesi Doctoral s'ha centrat en el dany fotosensibilitzat a l'ADN, i més concretament, en la comprensió mecanística dels processos involucrats en la formació de dímers de pirimidina a través de l'estat excitat. Per fer això, s'ha estudiat la fotoquímica de diferents models d'ADN de complexitat creixent, utilitzant la 2'-metoxiacetofenona (2M) com a fotosensibilitzador. Inicialment s'ha dut a terme la caracterització completa d'aquest fotosensibilitzador en el Capítol 3, mitjançant espectroscòpia d'absorció transitòria UV-Vis. S'ha estudiat en profunditat el seu estat excitat triplet mitjançant la determinació del seu espectre, temps de vida i constant de desactivació per amb un model de timina sintetitzat ex professo, i també la seua capacitat per a produir 1O2. Amb això s'ha pretés demostrar el seu potencial com a fotosensibilitzador de l'ADN, tant per a la formació de dímers ciclobutànics (DCBs), com per al dany oxidatiu. Dels resultats obtinguts s'ha confirmat la idoneïtat de la 2M com a fotosensibilitzador d'ADN per a estudis mecanístics. Per fer-ho, s'ha emprat en el Capítol 4 per a determinar la naturalesa del pas dominant de reacció en la ciclodimerització fotosensibilitzada de models homo i heterobipirimidínics, en els quals les bases s'han unit per ponts metilènics i amb diferent substitució en la posició C5. La irradiació selectiva de la 2M en presència d'aquests models ha donat lloc en tots els casos a la formació dels seus corresponents DCBs, cosa que demostra l'eficiència del procés fotosensibilitzador. L'anàlisi de la cinètica de reacció per a cada compost ha permés establir l'ordre de reactivitat, que ha estat justificat a través d'un estudi fotofísic. En ell s'ha constatat que, variant la substitució i la longitud del pont d'unió, és possible passar d'un procés governat per la dimerització intrínseca a un de controlat per la transferència d'energia entre el fotosensibilitzador i la base. Finalment, s'ha explorat la fotosensibilitació bifotònica de derivats pirimidínics al Capítol 5 a través d'una nova aproximació més generalista que l'existent en la bibliografia. Aquesta nova estratègia evita l'esforç sintètic d'unir covalentment el fotosensibilitzador a les unitats de pirimidina. Es basa en l'absorció d'un primer fotó per la 2-metoxiacetofenona seguida d'una transferència d'energia del triplet a la pirimidina que, en rebre el segon fotó, és capaç d'aconseguir un estat triplet superior que dona lloc a una nova química. La factibilitat d'aquesta aproximació s'ha demostrat mitjançant l'estudi de dues reaccions model: la fotorreacció Norrish-Yang i la fotohidratació de dos derivats d'uracil / [EN] Solar light is necessary for life on Earth and its beneficial effects are beyond any doubt. However, ultraviolet radiation (UV), which is part of the solar spectrum, can be harmful to living beings, as it is capable of generating mutations in DNA, which are closely related to the appearance of skin cancer. DNA damage can be produced both by direct absorption of UV radiation by this biomolecule and through photosensitised processes. Specially important in the case of the UVA range, which represents 90% of the solar UV radiation that reaches the Earth's surface. Although this light is barely absorbed by DNA, it is able to produce damage to the genetic material due to the presence of UVA-absorbing photosensitising compounds in its vicinity. This Doctoral Thesis is focused on photosensitised DNA damage, more concretely, on the mechanistic understanding of the processes involved in the formation of pyrimidine dimers through the triplet excited state. For this purpose, the photochemistry of DNA models of increasing complexity has been studied, using 2'-methoxyacetophenone as photosensitiser. Initially, the complete characterisation of this photosensitiser has been carried out in Chapter 3 by means of UV-Vis transient absorption spectroscopy. Its triplet excited state has been investigated in-depth, determining its spectrum, lifetime, rate constant for quenching by a thymine model, and capability to produce 1O2. The aim was to demonstrate its potential as a DNA photosensitiser, not only for cyclobutane pyrimidine dimer (CPD) formation, but also for oxidative damage. From the obtained results, the suitability of 2¿-methoxyacetophenone as a DNA photosensitiser for mechanistic studies has been confirmed. Hence, it has been used in Chapter 4 to determine the nature of the rate controlling reaction step in the photosensitised cyclodimerisation of homo and heterobipyrimidine models, where the nucleobases are linked by polymethylene bridges of different length and present different substitution patterns at the C5 position. In all cases, selective irradiation of 2¿methoxyacetophenone in the presence of the bipyrimidine models results in the formation of the corresponding CPD, demonstrating the efficiency of the photosensitised process. Analysis of the reaction kinetics for all compounds has allowed establishing the reactivity order, which is rationalised on the basis of a thorough photophysical study. Thus, it has been found that upon variation of the substitution pattern and the length of the linking bridge it is possible to switch from a process governed by the intrinsic excited state cyclodimerisation to a process controlled by the energy transfer from the photosensitiser to the base. Finally, the biphotonic photosensitisation of pyrimidine derivatives has been explored in Chapter 5, following a new and more general approach than the one recently reported in the literature. This approach does not require the synthetic effort associated with the preparation of covalently linked photosensitiser and pyrimidine units. It is based on the absorption of a first photon by 2¿methoxyacetophenone, followed by triplet energy transfer to the pyrimidine, which then receives a second photon to reach a higher triplet state that gives rise to new chemistry. The feasibility of this approach has been demonstrated through the study of two model reactions, namely the Norrish-Yang photoreaction and the photohydration of uracil derivatives. / Rodríguez Alzueta, O. (2020). 2'-Methoxyacetophenone as DNA photosensitiser for mono and biphotonic processes [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/159250 / TESIS

A Terapia Fotodinâmica (TFD) é uma técnica para tratamento de câncer que usa um fotossensibilizador (FS) na presença de luz e oxigênio molecular gerando espécies altamente reativas de oxigênio que levam as células tumorais à morte. Porém a hidrofobicidade de alguns FSs podem induzir a agregação em sistemas biológicos, com redução da sua atividade fotodinâmica. A incorporação de FSs em sistemas nanocarreadores pode ser uma alternativa para superar este problema. O objetivo deste trabalho foi preparar e caracterizar dois FSs hidrofóbicos (Hipericina e Tetra-carboxiftalocianinade zinco) encapsulados em nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas (NLS) para um potencial uso em terapia fotodinâmica. Os FSs incorporados em nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas foram preparados utilizando a técnica de ultra-sonicação e a caracterização físico-química foi realizada. O tamanho médio das nanopartículas de hipericina e tetra-carboxiftalocianinade zinco foram de 153 e 245 nm respectivamente, índice de polidispersão de 0,28 para Hy-NLS e 0,29 para FtZnT-NLS. Uma das vantagens dos sistemas de encapsulação utilizando NLS é o alto valor de eficiência de encapsulação (EE%) e neste estudo foram obtidos valores de eficiência de encapsulação superior a 80% para a Hy-NLS e FtZnT-NLS. De modo a obter a eficiência fotodinâmica da Hy e FtZnT antes e depois do encapsulamento em NLS, as constantes de velocidade de foto-decomposição utilizando dois agentes captadores de 1O2 (1,3 Difenilisobenzofurano e ácido úrico) foram determinadas. As constantes de velocidade de foto-decomposição tiveram aumento significativo após o encapsulamento que ocorreu provavelmente devido a um aumento no tempo de vida do estado triplete causado pelo aumento da solubilidade. Hy-NLS e FtZnT-NLS apresentaram um aumento acima de 30% e 60% respectivamente na acumulação intracelular e uma melhoria na fototoxicidade correlacionado com o aumento da acumulação intracelular. Todas essas vantagens sugerem que hipericina e a tetra-carboxiftalocianinade zincoencapsuladas em nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas tem potencial para serem utilizadas em terapia fotodinâmica. / Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a technique for treating cancer using a photosensitizer (PS) in the presence of light and molecular oxygen generating highly reactive oxygen species that lead to tumor cell death. The hydrophobicity of some photosensitizers can induce aggregation in biological systems, reducing its photodynamic activity. The incorporation of PSs in nanocarriers can be an alternative to overcome this problem. The aim of this work was to prepare and characterize two hydrophobic photosensitizers (Hypericin and Zinc tetra-carboxylicphthalocyanine) encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for potential use in photodynamic therapy. The PSs incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles were prepared using the ultrasonication technique, and physico-chemical characterization was performed. The average size of the nanoparticles with hypericin and zinc tetra-carboxylicphthalocyanine was 153 and 245 nm respectively, the polydispersivity index of 0.28 to Hy-SLN and 0.29 to FtZnT-SLN. One of the advantages of encapsulation systems using SLN is the high value of encapsulation efficiency (EE %). In this study were obtained values of encapsulation efficiency greater than 80% for the Hy-SLN and FtZnT-SLN. In order to obtain the photodynamic efficiency of Hy and FtZnT before and after encapsulation in SLN, rate constants using photo-decomposition of two scavengers of 1O2 agents (1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran and uric acid) were determined. The rate constants of photo-decomposition had significant increase after encapsulation which occurred probably due to an increase in the lifetime of the triplet state caused by the increased solubility. Hy-SLN and FtZnT-SLN showed an increase above 30% and 60% respectively in the intracellular accumulation and an improvement in phototoxicity correlated with increased intracellular accumulation. So, all these advantages suggest that hypericin and zinc tetra-carboxylicphthalocyanine encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles have potential to be used in photodynamic therapy.

A Terapia Fotodinâmica (TFD) é uma técnica para tratamento de câncer que usa um fotossensibilizador (FS) na presença de luz e oxigênio molecular gerando espécies altamente reativas de oxigênio que levam as células tumorais à morte. Porém a hidrofobicidade de alguns FSs podem induzir a agregação em sistemas biológicos, com redução da sua atividade fotodinâmica. A incorporação de FSs em sistemas nanocarreadores pode ser uma alternativa para superar este problema. O objetivo deste trabalho foi preparar e caracterizar dois FSs hidrofóbicos (Hipericina e Tetra-carboxiftalocianinade zinco) encapsulados em nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas (NLS) para um potencial uso em terapia fotodinâmica. Os FSs incorporados em nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas foram preparados utilizando a técnica de ultra-sonicação e a caracterização físico-química foi realizada. O tamanho médio das nanopartículas de hipericina e tetra-carboxiftalocianinade zinco foram de 153 e 245 nm respectivamente, índice de polidispersão de 0,28 para Hy-NLS e 0,29 para FtZnT-NLS. Uma das vantagens dos sistemas de encapsulação utilizando NLS é o alto valor de eficiência de encapsulação (EE%) e neste estudo foram obtidos valores de eficiência de encapsulação superior a 80% para a Hy-NLS e FtZnT-NLS. De modo a obter a eficiência fotodinâmica da Hy e FtZnT antes e depois do encapsulamento em NLS, as constantes de velocidade de foto-decomposição utilizando dois agentes captadores de 1O2 (1,3 Difenilisobenzofurano e ácido úrico) foram determinadas. As constantes de velocidade de foto-decomposição tiveram aumento significativo após o encapsulamento que ocorreu provavelmente devido a um aumento no tempo de vida do estado triplete causado pelo aumento da solubilidade. Hy-NLS e FtZnT-NLS apresentaram um aumento acima de 30% e 60% respectivamente na acumulação intracelular e uma melhoria na fototoxicidade correlacionado com o aumento da acumulação intracelular. Todas essas vantagens sugerem que hipericina e a tetra-carboxiftalocianinade zincoencapsuladas em nanopartículas lipídicas sólidas tem potencial para serem utilizadas em terapia fotodinâmica. / Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a technique for treating cancer using a photosensitizer (PS) in the presence of light and molecular oxygen generating highly reactive oxygen species that lead to tumor cell death. The hydrophobicity of some photosensitizers can induce aggregation in biological systems, reducing its photodynamic activity. The incorporation of PSs in nanocarriers can be an alternative to overcome this problem. The aim of this work was to prepare and characterize two hydrophobic photosensitizers (Hypericin and Zinc tetra-carboxylicphthalocyanine) encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) for potential use in photodynamic therapy. The PSs incorporated into solid lipid nanoparticles were prepared using the ultrasonication technique, and physico-chemical characterization was performed. The average size of the nanoparticles with hypericin and zinc tetra-carboxylicphthalocyanine was 153 and 245 nm respectively, the polydispersivity index of 0.28 to Hy-SLN and 0.29 to FtZnT-SLN. One of the advantages of encapsulation systems using SLN is the high value of encapsulation efficiency (EE %). In this study were obtained values of encapsulation efficiency greater than 80% for the Hy-SLN and FtZnT-SLN. In order to obtain the photodynamic efficiency of Hy and FtZnT before and after encapsulation in SLN, rate constants using photo-decomposition of two scavengers of 1O2 agents (1,3-Diphenylisobenzofuran and uric acid) were determined. The rate constants of photo-decomposition had significant increase after encapsulation which occurred probably due to an increase in the lifetime of the triplet state caused by the increased solubility. Hy-SLN and FtZnT-SLN showed an increase above 30% and 60% respectively in the intracellular accumulation and an improvement in phototoxicity correlated with increased intracellular accumulation. So, all these advantages suggest that hypericin and zinc tetra-carboxylicphthalocyanine encapsulated in solid lipid nanoparticles have potential to be used in photodynamic therapy.

L'atmosphère est un milieu hautement hétérogène contenant de la matière condensée : les aérosols. Ceux-ci sont des composants importants de l'atmosphère car ils impactent le bilan radiatif planétaire mais aussi la qualité de l'air. En particulier les aérosols organiques secondaires (AOS), produits par la transformation chimique dans l'air de nombreux composés organiques, plus ou moins volatils, représentent une fraction conséquente dans le budget global des aérosols atmosphériques pour laquelle de nombreuses incertitudes persistent. En particulier, leurs voies de formation et de transformation dans la troposphère restent très mal décrites. C'est pourquoi, cette thèse décrit principalement l'étude de trois aspects de la croissance et du vieillissement (transformation) des aérosols : caractérisation de la croissance des AOS par des processus photosensibilisés ; investigations mécanistiques du vieillissement des AOS et de la photochimie des photosensibilisateurs ; analyse chimique des composés issus du vieillissement des AOS / Aerosols are important constituents of the atmosphere and secondary organic aerosols (SOA) represent a main fraction of the organic aerosols in the total budget. This thesis mainly reports the investigation of three aspects of the growth and aging of SOA: the photosensitized SOA growth ; the mechanistic investigation of SOA aging and of the photochemistry of photosensitizers ; the analysis of the chemical composition of aged SOA. The photosensitized growth and aging processes of SOA were investigated using an aerosol flow tube coupled with various aerosol and gas sensing instruments. For further analysis of the aerosol composition and a better understanding of the formation and growth of SOA in these experiments the aerosols produced in the dark and in the light were sampled on filters at the exit of the flow tube

Les travaux de cette thèse sont centrés sur le développement de systèmes moléculaires en solution homogène pour la production photocatalytique de dihydrogène dans l'eau utilisant des catalyseurs de cobalt à ligands pentadentate tétrapyridinique ou tétra- et pentaaza macrocycliques. Associés au photosensibilisateur et à l’ascorbate comme donneur d’électron sacrificiel, les complexes à ligands macrocycliques présentent d’excellentes performances pour la production d’H2, bien supérieures à celles des complexes à ligands polypyridiniques en termes d’efficacité et de stabilité, en raison de la grande stabilité de leur état réduit «Co(I)». Enfin, [Ru(bpy)3]2+ a pu être substitué par un colorant organique très robuste du type triazatriangulénium conduisant à un système photocatalytique encore plus performant. Ces résultats démontrent que les colorants organiques sont une alternative viable aux photosensibilisateurs à base de métaux nobles, même en milieu aqueux acide. / The work of this manuscript is focused on the design of molecular systems in homogeneous solution for photocatalytic production of molecular hydrogen in water using cobalt catalysts with pentadentate tetrapyridinic and tetra- and pentaza macrocyclic ligands. In association with [Ru(bpy)3]2+ as photosensitizer and sodium ascorbate as sacrificial electron donor, the macrocycle based catalysts display high performances for H2 production, far exceeding those of the polypyridine based catalysts, both in terms of activity and stability, because of the stability of their reduced state «Co(I)». Finally, [Ru(bpy)3]2+ was successfully substituted with a robust organic dye belonging to the triazatriangulenium family, leading to an even more efficient photocatalytic system. These results demonstrate well that organic dyes are a truly efficient alternative to noble metal based photosensitizers, even in acidic aqueous medium.

No description available.

The current thesis addresses the various facets of the chemistry of photocytotoxic iron complexes including their syntheses, characterization, evaluation of the anti-proliferative activities in various cancer cell lines upon photo-exposure, mechanism of cell death, the cellular uptake, localization inside cells, the interaction with double stranded DNA and their ability to induce DNA photocleavage. Chapter I presents a general introduction to cancer and the anticancer agents. It covers various procedures available for cancer treatment and different aspects of chemotherapy are discussed in details. The mechanism of action of several chemotherapeutic agents, the DNA cleavage pathways and the anticancer activity of bleomycins are delineated. Photo-chemotherapy or photodynamic therapy which has emerged as an alternative treatment modality is described. It also contains a brief description of ideal photosensitizers and the ones that are currently approved. The potential of transition metal complexes as photo-chemotherapeutic agents is discussed based on the recent literature reports on the prospective photocytotoxic metal complexes, the photo-release of cytotoxic molecules from metal complexes, the DNA cleavage activities and their cytotoxicities. The biochemistry of iron and its medical utility which prompted the development of iron based cytotoxins has been presented. The objective of the present investigation is also defined in this chapter. Chapter II describes the syntheses, characterization, evaluation of visible light induced cytotoxicity and interaction with DNA of a series of iron(II) bis-terpyridine complexes. Some interesting redox behaviour observed for two of the complexes has been described in details and rationalized from theoretical calculations. The DNA binding affinities of the complexes and their ability to induce DNA photocleavage in green light are discussed. The importance of this work lies in the remarkable photocytotoxic behaviour of the iron(II) complexes with visible light which was not reported earlier. Chapter III addresses the syntheses of a series of iron(III) catecholate complexes which upon irradiation with red light can initiate photoreactions to generate cytotoxic species and induce death in HeLa, HaCaT, MCF-7 and A549 cells. The mechanisms of cell death, effect of the complexes on the cell cycle under various conditions, the uptake inside cells and the cellular localization of the complexes are studied. The DNA binding affinities of the five complexes and their ability to induce DNA photocleavage in red light are also presented here. These are the first iron based complexes to show red light induced photocytotoxicity. Chapter IV addresses the drawbacks associated with the aforementioned iron(III) catecholates and their modification with a mitochondria targeting triphenylphosphonium unit. The synthesis, characterization, photocytotoxicities in HeLa, HaCaT, MCF-7 and A549, cell death mechanisms and cellular uptake and localization of four iron(III) complexes are discussed. Chapter V describes the syntheses, characterization and the biological activities of carbohydrate appended iron(III) complexes and their non-glucose analogues. The selective and faster internalization of the glyco-conjugated complexes in HeLa cells has been studied using various spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. The red light induced cytotoxicities of the complexes, their effect on the progression of the cell cycle with and without irradiation and the mechanisms of cell death are explored. DNA binding abilities and photocleavage of DNA are also discussed. Chapter VI presents the syntheses, characterization of a series of iron(III) complexes of a pyridoxal derivative and their salicyldehyde analogues for exploring their differential photocytotoxicity and cellular uptake in cancer cells compared to normal cells. The visible light induced cytotoxicities of the complexes in HeLa, HaCaT, MCF-7 A549 cells and HPL1D cells, their effect on the progression of the cell cycle in dark and light, the mechanisms of cell death and the localization of the complexes inside the cells are explored. The references have been compiled at the end of each chapter and given as superscripts in the text. The complexes presented in this thesis are indicated by bold-faced numbers. Crystallography data of the complexes that are structurally characterized by single crystal X-ray crystallography are given in CIF format in the enclosed CD (Appendix-I). Due acknowledgements have been made wherever the work described is based on the findings of other investigators. Any unintentional omission that might have happened due to oversight is regretted. INDEX WORDS: Iron complexes • Crystal structure • Red light induced cytotoxicity • Cellular imaging • DNA binding • DNA photocleavage.

Photosensitizing effects of xenobiotics are of increasing concern in public health since modern lifestyle often associates sunlight exposure with the presence of chemical substances in the skin. An important number of chemicals like perfumes, sunscreen components, or therapeutic agents have been reported as photosensitizers. In this context, a considerable effort has been made to design a model system for photosafety assessment. Indeed, screening for phototoxicity is necessary at the early phase of drug discovery process, even before introducing drugs and chemicals into clinical therapy, to prevent undesired photoreactions in humans. In the case of new pharmaceuticals, their phototoxic potential has to be tested when they absorb in the regions corresponding to the solar spectrum, that is, for wavelengths >290 nm. So, there is an obvious need for a screening strategy based on in vitro experiments. The goal of the present thesis was the photochemical study of different photoactive drugs to investigate the key molecular aspects responsible for their photosensitivity side effects. In a first stage, rosuvastatin was considered in chapter 3 as representative compound of the statin family. This lipid-lowering drug, also known as “superstatin”, contains a 2-vinylbiphenyl-like moiety and has been previously described to decompose under solar irradiation, yielding stable dihydrophenanthrene analogues. During photophysical characterization of rosuvastatin, only a long-lived transient at ca. 550 nm was observed and assigned to the primary photocyclization intermediate. Thus, the absence of detectable triplet-triplet absorption and the low yield of fluorescence ruled out the role of the parent drug as an efficient sensitizer. In this context, the attention was placed on the rosuvastatin main photoproduct (ppRSV). Indeed, the photobehavior of this dihydrophenanthrene-like compound presented the essential components needed for an efficient biomolecule photosensitizer i.e. (i) a high intersystem crossing quantum yield (ΦISC =0.8), (ii) a triplet excited state energy of ca. 67 kcal mol−1 , and (iii) a quantum yield of singlet oxygen formation (Φ∆) of 0.3. Furthermore, laser flash photolysis studies revealed a triplet-triplet energy transfer from the triplet excited state of ppRSV to thymidine, leading to the formation of cyclobutane thymidine dimers, an important type of DNA lesion. Finally, tryptophan was used as a probe to investigate the Type I and/or Type II character of ppRSV-mediated oxidation. In this way, both an electron transfer process giving rise to the tryptophanyl radical and a singlet oxygen mediated oxidation were observed. On the basis of the obtained results, rosuvastatin, through its major photoproduct ppRSV, should be considered as a potential sensitizer. Then, itraconazole (ITZ), a broad-spectrum antifungal agent, was chosen as main character of chapter 4. Its photochemical properties were investigated in connection with its reported skin photosensitivity disorders. Steady state photolysis, fluorescence and phosphorescence experiments were performed to understand ITZ photoreactivity in biological media. The drug is unstable under UVB irradiation, suffering a primary dehalogenation of the 2,4-dichlorophenyl moiety that occurs mainly at the ortho-position. In poorly H-donating solvents, as acetonitrile, the major photoproduct arises from intramolecular attack of the initially generated aryl radical to the triazole ring. In addition, reduced compounds resulting from homolytic cleavage of the C-Cl bond in ortho or para positions and subsequent Habstraction from the medium are obtained to a lesser extent. In good H-donating solvents, such as ethanol, the main photoproducts are formed by reductive dehalogenation. Furthermore, irradiation of a model dyad containing a tryptophan unit and the reactive 2,4-dichlorophenyl moiety of itraconazole leads to formation of a new covalent link between these two substructures revealing that homolysis of the C-Cl bond of ITZ can result in alkylation of reactive amino acid residues of proteins, leading to formation of covalent photoadducts. Therefore, it has been established that the key process in the photosensitization by itraconazole is cleavage of the carbon-halogen bond, which leads to aryl radicals and chlorine atoms. These highly reactive species might be responsible for extensive free radical-mediated biological damage, including lipid peroxidation or photobinding to proteins. In chapter 5, photobehavior of imatinib (IMT) was addressed. This is a promising tyrosine kinase inhibitor used in the treatment of some types of human cancer, which constitutes a successful example of rational drug design based on the optimization of the chemical structure to reach an improved pharmacological activity. Cutaneous reactions, such as increased photosensitivity or pseudoporphyria, are among the most common nonhematological IMT side effects; however, the molecular bases of these clinical observations have not been unveiled yet. Thus, to gain insight into the IMT photosensitizing properties, its photobehavior was studied together with that of its potentially photoactive anilino-pyrimidine and pyridyl-pyrimidine fragments. In this context, steady-state and time resolved fluorescence, as well as laser flash photolysis experiments were run, and the DNA photosensitization potential was investigated by means of single strand breaks detection using agarose gel electrophoresis. The obtained results revealed that the drug itself and its anilino-pyrimidine fragment are not DNA-photosensitizers. By contrast, the pyridyl-pyrimidine substructure displayed a marked photogenotoxic potential, which was associated with the generation of a long-lived triplet excited state. Interestingly, this reactive species was efficiently quenched by benzanilide, another molecular fragment of IMT. Clearly, integration of the photoactive pyridyl-pyrimidine moiety in a more complex structure strongly modifies its photobehavior, which in this case is fortunate as it leads to an improved toxicological profile. Thus, on the bases of the experimental results, direct in vivo photosensitization by IMT seems unlikely. Instead, the reported photosensitivity disorders could be related to indirect processes, such as the previously suggested impairment of melanogenesis or the accumulation of endogenous porphyrins. Finally, a possible source of errors in the TEMPO/EPR method for singlet oxygen detection was analyzed. For many biological and biomedical studies, it is essential to detect the production of 1O2 and to quantify its production yield. Among the available methods, detection of the characteristic 1270 nm phosphorescence of singlet oxygen by time-resolved near infrared (TRNIR) emission constitutes the most direct and unambiguous approach. An alternative indirect method is electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) in combination with trapping. This is based on the detection of the TEMPO free radical formed after oxidation of TEMP (2,2,6,6- tetramethylpiperidine) by singlet oxygen. Although the TEMPO/EPR method has been largely employed, it can produce misleading data. This was demonstrated by the present study, where the quantum yields of singlet oxygen formation obtained by TRNIR emission and by the TEMPO/EPR method were compared for a set of well-known photosensitizers. The results revealed that the TEMPO/EPR method leads to significant overestimation of singlet oxygen yield when the singlet or triplet excited state of the photosensitizers were efficiently quenched by TEMP, acting as electron donor. In such case, generation of the TEMP+• radical cation, followed by deprotonation and reaction with molecular oxygen gives rise to a EPR detectable TEMPO signal that is not associated with singlet oxygen production. This knowledge is essential for an appropriate and error-free application of the TEMPO/EPR method in chemical, biological and medical studies. / Nardi, G. (2014). MECHANISTIC STUDIES ON THE PHOTOTOXICITY OF ROSUVASTATIN, ITRACONAZOLE AND IMATINIB [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/48535 / TESIS