Orientador: Lauro Tatsuo Kubota / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Quimica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-07T10:16:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Damos_FlavioSantos_D.pdf: 8044516 bytes, checksum: a3443f4130ad6150c52dfa20c571bb04 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006 / Resumo: O presente trabalho descreve as aplicações da ressonância de plásmon de superfície (surface plasmon resonance-SPR) e da microbalança de cristal de quartzo (quartz crystal microbalance-QCM) na investigação de processos interfaciais, visando o melhor entendimento e aplicação dos sistemas investigados bem como o estabelecimento das aplicações da técnica SPR aliada à eletroquímica. Neste sentido são apresentadas investigações do comportamento óptico-eletroquímico da molécula de azul de metileno (sistema 1), polímeros condutores (sistema 2) e monocamadas auto-organizadas (sistema 3). A escolha de tais sistemas, embora distintos, tem a finalidade de exploração ampla da técnica SPR na investigação de processos superficiais e interfaciais. O uso da técnica SPR na investigação do sistema 1 mostra a sua aplicabilidade no monitoramento do intumescimento de filmes em dimensões nanométricas e a investigação de processos adsortivos e difusionais com elevada sensibilidade. Assim sendo, a técnica SPR foi aplicada na investigação de processos de formação de filmes finos de polímeros condutores, bem como os processos de dopagem destes filmes. Neste sentido, foi investigada a eletropolimerização do pirrol e da polianilina bem como o efeito de dopantes aniônicos sobre as propriedades ópticas e eletroquímicas destes materiais. As medidas ópticas obtidas foram correlacionadas aos processos de dopagem e desdopagem dos filmes confeccionados mediante um estudo comparativo destes processos por QCM tendo em vista a consolidação da mesma na investigação de tais processos. Por fim, com o propósito de explorar a sensibilidade da técnica SPR a sistemas de dimensões sub-nanométricas, foram investigadas monocamadas auto-organizadas de ácido 11-mercapto-undecanóico e mono(6-deoxi-6-mercapto)-b-ciclodextrina. Neste sentido, foram determinadas a espessura e a constante dielétrica destes filmes, assim como a cinética de adsorção destes empregando um modelo de adsorção fundamentado na adsorção, desorção e re-arranjo molecular / Abstract: The present work describes the applications of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) in the investigation of interface processes in the attempt to improve the understanding and application of the investigated systems as well as the establishment of the applications of the SPR allied with electrochemical techniques. In this sense, are presented the investigation of the electrochemical behavior of the methylene blue molecule (system 1), conducting polymers (system 2) and self-assembled monolayers (system 3). The selection of these systems, although distinct, has a focus on the exploration of the SPR technique in the investigation of surface and interface processes. The use of SPR technique in the investigation of the system 1 shows its applicability in the monitoring of swelling of films in nanometric size as well as the investigation of adsorptive and diffusional processes with high sensitivity. Thus, SPR was applied in the investigation of construction of thin conducting polymer films as well as its doping processes. In this sense, were investigated pyrrole and aniline electropolymerization as well as the effects of anionic dopants on its optical and electrochemical properties. The optical measurements were correlated with the doping and dedoping processes of the films by means of a comparative study of these processes by QCM due to the better establishment of this technique in the investigation of these processes. Finally, with the purpose of explore the sensitivity of the SPR technique in sub-nanometric size systems, the SPR technique was applied in the investigation of selfassembled monolayers of 11-mercapto-undecanoic acid and mono(6-deoxy-6-mercapto)-b- cyclodextrin. In this sense, were determined the thickness and dielectric constant of these films as well as the adsorption kinetic by using a kinetic model based on adsorption, desorption and re-arrangement of molecules / Doutorado / Físico-Química / Mestre em Química

Des propriétés optiques inédites sont prédites si des nanorésonateurs optiques sont organisés dans un matériau, ce qui peut être réalisé par l’auto-assemblage de nanoparticules plasmoniques synthétisées chimiquement. Dans ce travail de doctorat, nous utilisons des structures ordonnées de copolymères à blocs pour organiser des nanoparticules plasmoniques. Nous étudions le lien entre la structure des nanocomposites en films minces, et en particulier la nature, la densité et l’organisation des nanoparticules, et leurs propriétés optiques. Pour cela, nous avons tout d’abord produit des phases lamellaires de copolymères diblocs poly(styrène)-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine) (PS-b-P2VP) en films minces d’épaisseur (100nm-700nm) et de période lamellaire (17nm-70nm) contrôlées, et dont l’alignement et l’homogénéité sont optimisés. Nous avons développé une synthèse in situ, au sein de ces films lamellaires, qui permet de produire de façon contrôlée et reproductible, des nanoparticules plasmoniques de diamètre 7-10nm sélectivement dans les domaines P2VP. Nous avons montré que la taille et la forme des particules d’or formées in situ peuvent être modifiées en jouant sur le solvant et le réducteur chimique mis en jeu. Nous avons étudié en détail la structure des nanocomposites formulés, ce qui est en particulier nécessaire à la bonne exploitation des données d’ellipsométrie spectroscopique afin de déterminer les réponses optiques. La structure des échantillons a été étudiée par différentes méthodes de microscopie (électronique en transmission ou à balayage, à force atomique), ainsi que de la diffusion des rayons X. Nous avons utilisé une microbalance à Quartz pour étudier la quantité d’or introduite dans les matrices lamellaires de manière « cinétique » au fil de son augmentation progressive. La quantité d’or atteint des valeurs de 40 % en volume. Les propriétés optiques des films nanocomposites sont déterminées par ellipsométrie spectroscopique à angle variable et analysées à l’aide de modèles de milieux effectifs. Les films sont homogènes et anisotropes uniaxes, et on peut définir leur tenseur de permittivité diélectrique avec une composante ordinaire εo (parallèle au substrat) et une composante extraordinaire εe (perpendiculaire au substrat). L’analyse permet de montrer que les deux composantes εo and εe présentent une résonance proche de la longueur d’onde =540nm, avec une amplitude très supérieure pour εo. Lorsque la quantité d’or dans la structure lamellaire est suffisante, εo devient négatif au voisinage de la résonance et le matériau atteint le régime appelé hyperbolique, ce qui constitue un jalon essentiel pour le développement de matériaux pour des applications en imagerie hyper-résolue. / Novel optical properties in the visible range are foreseen when organizing nanoresonators, which can be performed by the self-assembly of plasmonic nanoparticles prepared by wet chemistry. In this project, we use templating block copolymers structures to organize plasmonic particles. Our goal is to relate the structure of the prepared nanocomposites thin films, and in particular the nature, density and spatial organization of the nanoparticles, with their optical index.For this purpose, we first fabricate lamellar superlattices of diblock copolymers (poly(styrene)-block-poly(2-vinylpyridine) of controlled thickness (100nm-700nm), controlled lamellar period size(17 nm-70 nm) and optimized alignment and homogeneity. Following the fabrication of the multilayer templates, an in situ and reproducible synthesis of metallic nanoparticles was developed in order to generate nanocomposites selectively inside the P2VP layers. The size of Au nanoparticles can be well controlled around 7-10 nm. We also found that the reduction process could influence the shape (sphere, triangle or cylinder) and size by using different solvents or reducing agents. Because the extraction of accurate optical responses from the spectroscopic ellipsometry data, which will come in the last part, critically relies on the precise knowledge of the sample structure. We have used several experimental techniques to access a precise description of the produced materials. In particular, we used a Quartz Crystal Microbalance as a measurement tool to ‘kinetically’ study the volume fraction of Au loading. We find that the amount of gold in the composite layers can be varied up to typically 40 volume%. The optical properties of the nanocomposite films are determined by variable angle spectroscopic ellipsometry and analyzed by appropriately developed effective medium models. The films are structurally uniaxial and homogeneous, and we can define their dielectric permittivity tensor with the ordinary (parallel to the substrate) and extraordinary (normal to the substrate) components. The analysis of the lamellar structures allows the extraction of the components εo and εe, both presenting a resonance close to =540nm, with a significantly stronger amplitude for εo. When the gold load is high enough and the couplings between particles are strong enough, the values of εo become negative close to the resonance, and the material reaches the so-called hyperbolic regime, which constitutes a step towards applications in hyper-resolution imaging.

Cette thèse se concentre sur la caractérisation d'assemblages organisés de nanoparticules plasmoniques appelés supracristaux. Les nanoparticules utilisées mesurent entre 5 et 11 nm de diamètre et possèdent une distribution en taille étroite permettant leur organisation à trois dimensions. Une fois les supracristaux obtenus, nous avons mesuré les spectres d'absorbance de supracristaux individuels constitués de différentes nanoparticules : cuivre, argent et or. Un modèle théorique simple a été utilisé pour calculer les spectres d'absorbance à partir de données disponibles dans la littérature. Nous avons ensuite montré que les supracristaux de nanoparticules d'argent ou d'or constituent de nouveaux substrats présentant un grand intérêt pour des applications en Spectroscopie Raman Exaltée de Surface (SERS). Les tailles des nanoparticules utilisées sont en effet beaucoup plus petites que celles reportées dans la littérature, d'où un nombre plus important de points chauds et donc une grande sensibilité. En vue d'applications couplées électrochimie/Raman, nous avons également mesuré les spectres de réflectance sous potentiel. De plus, des mesures par AFM conducteur et par microscopie électrochimique montrent que la conductivité des assemblages est faible mais autorise néanmoins des transferts d'électrons entre les supracristaux les plus fins et une sonde redox en solution. Enfin, des expériences de microscopie holographique ont permis de suivre la formation de ces édifices en solution. / This thesis focuses on the characterization of organized assemblies of plasmonic nanoparticles called supracrystals. The nanoparticles have a diameter ranging from 5 to 11 nm diameter and a narrow size distribution allowing their organization at three dimensions. Once the supracrystals were obtained, we measured the absorbance spectrum of individual supracrystals made of various nanoparticles: copper, silver or gold. A simple theoretical model was used to calculate the absorbance spectrum from available data in the literature. We then demonstrated that the supracrystals made of silver or gold nanoparticles are suitable substrates for Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy applications. The sizes of the nanoparticles we use are indeed much smaller than in the literature, so that the number of hot spots and thus the sensitivity are increased. In view of coupling electrochemistry and Raman spectroscopy for future applications, we also measured the reflectance spectrum under potential control. Moreover, conductive AFM and Scanning ElectroChemical Microscopy measurements demonstrate that even if the conductivity of the supracrystals is weak, electron transfers between thin supracrystals and a redox probe in solution are nevertheless possible. Finally, holographic microscopy experiments allowed to follow the formation of these structures inside the solution.

Hybridization of quantum emitters and plasmonic nanostructures has attracted much attention over the last years, due to their potential use as plasmon-based nanolasersor to achieve long-range quantum bit entanglement. Recent theoretical studies suggest that the plasmonic field can induce efficient cross-talking between emitters and lead to the formation of collective superradiant states. In this thesis, we developed a theoretical modelable to analyse collective effects in large ensemble of dipoles coupled by an electromagnetic nanoresonator. We experimentally investigated the plasmon-mediated superradiance of organic emitters grafted at a well-controlled distance from a metal nanosphere at room temperature. We report on the measured decay rates of these hybrid structures at the ensemble and single object levels. We find that the decay rate increases i) with the number ofemitters and ii) as the spacing between the emitters and the metal core decreases, a direct and clear evidence of plasmonic superradiance. This trend was observed for two types of hybrid structures, differing both by the size of the metal core and the type of organic dye used as emitter. The observation of plasmonic superradiance at room temperature opens questions about the robustness of these collective states against decoherence mechanisms.This robustness is of major interest for potential applications of quantum systems at room temperature. / Placer des nanostructures plasmoniques à proximité d’émetteurs quantiques est une approche prometteuse pour concevoir des nanolasers plasmoniques ou réaliser l’intrication de bits quantiques à longue distance. Des études théoriques récentes suggèrent que le champ plasmonique peut induire un couplage efficace entre émetteurs et mener à la formationd’états collectifs superradiants. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons développé un modèle théorique afin d’analyser les effets collectifs pour un ensemble de dipoles couplés à un nanorésonateur électromagnétique. Nous avons étudié expérimentalement la superradiance plasmonique d’émetteurs organiques greffés à une distance contrôlée d’une nanosphère metallique,à température ambiante. Nous avons mesuré le taux de relaxation de ces structures hybrides, en ensemble et à l’échelle de l’objet unique. Nous observons que le taux de relaxation augmente i) avec le nombre d’émetteurs et ii) lorsque la distance entre les émetteurs et le coeur métallique diminue, une preuve directe et claire de la superradiance plasmonique.Cette tendance a été observée pour deux types de structure hybride, différentes par la taille du coeur métallique et par le type de molécule utilisée comme émetteur. L’observation de la superradiance plasmonique à température ambiante ouvre des questions sur la robustesse d’un état superradiant contre des mécanismes de décohérence. Cette robustesse présente un intérêt majeur pour des applications potentielles de systèmes quantiques à température ambiante.

Over the past few years, surface plasmon photodetectors have been of renewed interest. This is due to their unique double functionality of combining an SPP waveguide structure with a photodetection structure. This thesis investigates the performance of a Schottky nano-photodetector integrated into a finite width metal stripe which is covered by air on top and supported by silicon at the bottom, supporting the propagation of bound SPP modes. Properties of surface plasmons, including the sub-wavelength confinement, were exploited to increase the efficiency of the detector. The detector performance was explored via applying end-fire coupling to the fundamental supported mode, then the results were used to calculate the devices responsivity, dark current, minimum detectable power, and photocurrent for various metal lengths. End fire coupling to a Schottky mode supported by a nano-structured metal was done for what is believed to be the first time.

Different types of plasmonic nanostructures are proposed and examined experimentally and theoretically, with a view towards sensing applications. First, a self-assembly approach was developed to create arrays of well-ordered glass-supported gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with controllable particle size and inter-particle spacing. Then, a periodic array of gold nano-disks (AuNDs) supported by a Bragg reflector was proposed and examined in a search for Fano resonances in its optical response. Arrays of heptamer-arranged nanoholes (HNH) in a thin gold film were also proposed and explored theoretically and experimentally, revealing a very rich spectrum of resonances, several exhibiting a Fano lineshape. A commercial implementation of the vectorial finite element method (FEM) was used to model our plasmonic structures. Taking advantage of the periodic nature of the structures, a unit cell containing a single element was modelled. The transmittance, reflectance or absorbance spectra were computed, and the associated electromagnetic fields were obtained by solving the vector wave equations for the electromagnetic field vectors throughout the structures, subject to the applicable boundary conditions, and the applied source fields. The sensing performance of the structures, based on the bulk sensitivity, surface sensitivity and figure of merit (FOM) was calculated. First, a novel bottom-up fabrication approach was applied (by our collaborators) to form a periodic array of AuNPs with controllable size over large areas on SiO2 substrates. In this method, self-assembly of block copolymer micelles loaded with metal precursors was combined with a seeding growth route to create ordered AuNPs of desired size. It was shown that this new fabrication method offers a new approach to tune the AuNP size and edge-to-edge inter-particle spacing while preserving the AuNP ordering. The optical characteristics of the AuNP arrays, such as their size, interparticle spacing, localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) wavelength, and bulk sensitivity, were examined, numerically and experimentally. This proposed novel fabrication method is applicable for low-cost mass-production of large-area arrays of high-quality AuNPs on a substrate for sensing applications. Then, we proposed and examined the formation of Fano resonances in a plasmonic-dielectric system consisting of uncoupled gold nano-disk (AuND) arrays on a quarter-wave dielectric stack. The mechanism behind the creation of Fano resonances was explained based on the coherent interference between the reflection of the Bragg stack and the LSPPs of the AuNDs. Fano parameters were obtained by fitting the computational data to the Fano formula. The bulk sensitivities and figure of merit of the Fano resonances were calculated. This plasmonic structure supports Fano resonances with a linewidth around 9 nm which is much narrower than the individual AuND LSPP bandwidth ( 80 nm) and the Bragg stack bandwidth ( 100 nm). Supporting Fano resonances with such a narrow linewidth, the structure has a great potential to be used for sensing applications. Also, this metallic-dielectric nanostructure requires no near-field coupling between AuNDs to generate the Fano resonances. So, the AuNDs can be located far enough from each other to simplify the potential fabrication process. The optical properties of HNH arrays on an SiO2 substrate were investigated, numerically and experimentally. Helium focused ion beam (HeFIB) milling was applied (by Dr. Choloong Hahn) to fabricate well-ordered and well-defined arrays of HNHs. Transmittance spectra of the structures were obtained as the optical response, which exhibits several Fano resonances. Then, the mechanism behind the formation of the Fano resonances was explained, and the sensing performance of the structure was inspected by measuring the bulk sensitivities. This array of nanohole cluster is exciting because it supports propagating SPPs and LSPPs, and also Wood’s anomaly waves, which makes the optical response very rich in excitations and spectral features. Also, as a periodic array of sub-wavelength metallic nanoholes, the system produces extraordinary optical transmission - highly enhanced transmission through (otherwise) opaque metallic films at specific wavelengths, facilitating measurement acquisition in transmission.

La manipulation de micro- et nano- particules en solution peut être réalisée grâce aux interactions de ces objets avec des champs électromagnétiques. La lumière ou bien encore les champs électriques continus (DC) ou alternatifs (AC) peuvent être utilisés. Dans le cas d’un champ électrique non uniforme appliqué entre deux électrodes séparées par quelques micromètres, des gradients de champs très intenses et localisés sont ainsi créés. Ces gradients de champ localisés au niveau des électrodes engendrent la création de mouvements de charges composant la solution (effets électro-hydrodynamique). Mais aussi des charges confinées au niveau des particules à l’interface liquide/solide. Les particules en suspension subissent alors une force attractive ou répulsive appelée diélectrophorèse. Cette force est décrite dans la littérature pour des particules isolantes de taille supérieure à 200 nm. Dans cette étude par détection optique (videomicroscopie par champ sombre ou spectroscopie en microfluidique) la gamme de taille de particules est élargie (40-150 nm) pour étudier leurs réponses diélectrophorètique. En effet la diélectrophorèse dépend de la taille des particules, de son environnement et des paramètres du champ appliqué (fréquence, amplitude, topologie) La diélectrophorèse est mise en compétition avec le mouvement Brownian pour des particules d’or d’aussi petites tailles. La réponse pour des nanoparticules d’or en solution alors connue, il est envisageable de faire varier les paramètres, comme l’environnement de la particule ou bien la complexité des systèmes étudiés. / The manipulation of micro- and nano- particles in solution can be achieved through the interactions of these objects with electromagnetic fields. Emitted light, continuous (DC) or alternating (AC) electric fields can be used. In the case of a non-uniform electric field applied between two electrodes separated by a few micrometers, very intense and localized field gradients are created. These field gradients localised close to the electrodes generates a motion of the mass solution (electro-hydrodynamic effects). The charges confined onto particles at the liquid/solid interface are also subjected to motion. Suspended particles undergo an attractive or repulsive force called dielectrophoresis.This force is described in the literature for insulating particles larger than 200 nm. In this study optical detection was used (dark field videomicroscopy or microfluidic spectroscopy) to expand the range of particle size (40-150 nm) and to study their dielectrophoretic responses. Indeed, the dielectrophoresis is dependent on the size of particles, their environment and the parameters of the applied electric field (frequency, amplitude, topology). The dielectrophoresis is in competition with the Brownian motion of these gold nanoparticles. By, knowing the dielectrophoretic response of these particles in solution, it is possible to vary parameters, such as the suspension composition of the particles or the complexity of the systems studied.

Les nanoparticules d’or présentent des propriétés optiques particulières grâce au phénomène de résonance de plasmon de surface. L’irradiation laser d’une nanoparticule au voisinage de sa fréquence de résonance induit deux effets notables : une forte absorption de l’énergie lumineuse et une amplification du champ électromagnétique dans son environnement proche. Grâce à ces deux caractéristiques et à la bonne biocompatibilité de l’or, ces nano-objets peuvent être utilisés pour bon nombre d’applications biomédicales déclenchées par la lumière. Dans ce domaine, les nanobâtonnets d’or (AuNR) sont particulièrement prometteurs. En effet, il est possible d’accorder leur fréquence de résonance via leur rapport d’aspect, par exemple pour la placer dans la fenêtre de transparence relative des tissus biologiques (650–1350 nm). Cette résonance présente alors un facteur de qualité élevé. L’irradiation d’AuNR produit ainsi de multiples effets biologiques complexes, surtout avec des impulsions ultrabrèves intenses. Néanmoins, la physique de l’AuNR en milieu aqueux n’est réellement comprise que dans des conditions plus simples. C’est pourquoi cette thèse vise à mieux comprendre cette multi-physique dans les conditions d’irradiation pertinentes pour la biologie. Elle apporte des éléments de réponse théoriques, numériques et expérimentaux sur la réponse optique transitoire, la dynamique des échanges d’énergies, la génération plasmonique de plasma, la photoluminescence et la production de dérivés réactifs de l’oxygène. Tous ces processus ont un impact biologique ou biomédical. Leur analyse révèle avant tout le rôle prépondérant des électrons chauds en régime ultrabref. / Gold nanoparticles exhibit specific optical properties thanks to surface plasmon resonance. Laser irradiation close to their resonance frequency induces two main effects : a high absorption of the electromagnetic energy and an enhancement of the electromagnetic field in their close vicinity. In addition, gold is biocompatible. These three features have made them extremely useful for a number of light-triggered biomedical applications. In this field, gold nanorods (AuNRs) specifically show promise. Indeed, their resonance frequency can be tuned by changing their aspect ratio in order to match the window where biological media are relatively transparent (650–1350 nm). Their resonance then exhibits a high quality factor. As a result, light irradiation of AuNRs triggers various complex biological effects, especially when intense, ultrashort pulses are used. Nevertheless, the physics of irradiated AuNRs in aqueous media is only properly understood in more simple situations. That is why this thesis aims at reaching a better understanding of these multi-physics in biologically relevant irradiation conditions. It provides theoretical, numerical and experimental pieces of information about the transient optical response, the dynamics of energy transfer, the plasmon-assisted plasma generation, the photoluminescence and the production of reactive oxygen species. Each of these processes has biological or biomedical impact. Analyzing the underlying mechanisms reveals above all the major role of hot electrons in the ultrashort regime.

Surface plasmon resonances of metal nanostructures have been studied intensely in recent years. The strong plasmon-mediated electric field enhancement and field confinement well beyond the diffraction limit has been demonstrated to improve the performance of optical devices including ultrasensitive sensors, light emitters, and optical absorbers. A plasmon resonance mode of particular recent interest is the gap plasmon resonance that occurs on closely spaced metallic structures. In contrast to plasmon resonances supported by isolated metal nanostructures, coupled nanostructures provide additional spectral and spatial control over the plasmon resonance response. For example, the resonance frequencies of metal nanoparticle dimers depend strongly on the gap size between the nanoparticles. Gap plasmons can produce local electric field enhancement factors that are several orders of magnitude stronger and more confined than surface plasmon resonances of isolated plasmonic nanospheres. The reliance of gap plasmons on few-nanometer separation between nanostructures makes it difficult to prepare gap-plasmon supporting structures with predictable resonance frequency and field enhancement. A structure that avoids this challenge is the film-coupled nanoparticle (NP). Similar to nanoparticle dimers, a nanoparticle on a supporting metallic film (or NP-on-a-mirror) can offer a strong coupling between the particle and its local environment, in this case the supporting film instead of adjacent nanoparticles, enabling strongly confined gap-plasmon modes. The NP-on-a-mirror geometry has been shown to produce reproducible gap plasmon resonances in a chemically and thermally robust, easy to fabricate structure. In this Thesis, we first present a scheme for controlling the gap plasmon resonance frequency of single gold nanoparticles using aluminum oxide coated metal films. We demonstrate experimentally and numerically that the gap-plasmon resonance of single gold nanoparticles can be tuned throughout the visible range by controlling the aluminum oxide thickness via anodization. In a separate study of Au NP on Al2O3 coated gold films it is shown that the oxide coating improves the stability of the structure under intense laser irradiation. An combined experimental and numerical analysis of the spectral response of Au NP on rough Au films shows that a film roughness of a few nanometer can affect the gap plasmon resonance in the absence of an oxide spacer layer. A photoluminescence study of single gold nanoparticles on an Al2O3 coated gold film shows that the gap-plasmon resonance of this type of plasmonic structure can increase gold photoluminescence by more than four orders of magnitude. Related numerical simulations reveal that the local photoluminescence enhancement of a gold nanoparticle on an Al2O3 coated gold film can be as high as one million near the particle-film junction. Finally, a new plasmonic sensing element was proposed based on our findings in the previous chapters. This proposed hole-in-one structure offers several attractive features including an easily optically accessible gap plasmon mode, while maintaining a relatively simple fabrication method. Taken together, the research presented in this Thesis demonstrates how the resonance frequency, field enhancement, mode polarization, structural stability, and structure reliability can be controlled at the nanoscale. The knowledge gained in the course of this work could lead to further development of nanophotonic devices that utilize extremely confined optical fields and precisely controlled resonance frequencies.

Nanoscale structures play a fundamental role in diverse scientific areas, including biology and information technology. It is necessary to develop methods that can observe nanoscale structures and dynamic processes that involve them. Colloidal plasmonic nanoparticles (plasmonic “atoms”) and their clusters (plasmonic “molecules”) are nanoscale objects with remarkable optical properties that provide new opportunities for sensing and imaging on the relevant length and time scales. Many biology questions require optically monitoring of the dynamic behavior of biological systems on single molecule level. In contrast to the commonly used fluorescent probes which have the problem of bleaching, blinking and relatively weak signals, plasmonic probes display superb brightness, persistency and photostability, thus enable long observation time and high temporal and spacial resolutions. When plasmonic atoms are clustered together, their resonances redshift while the intensities increase as a result of plasmon coupling. These optical responses are dependent on the interparticle gaps and the overall geometry, which makes plasmonic molecules capable of detecting biomolecule clustering and measuring nanometer scale distance fluctuations. In this dissertation, individual plasmonic atoms are firstly evaluated as imaging probe and their interactions with lipid membrane are tested on a newly developed on-chip black lipid membrane system. Subsequently, plasmonic dimers (plasmon rulers) prepared through DNA-programmed self-assembly are monitored to detect the mechanical properties of single biopolymers. Measurement of the spring constant of short (tens of nucleotides or base pairs) DNAs is demonstrated through plasmon coupling microscopy. Colloidal plasmonic atoms of various materials, sizes and shapes scatter vivid colors in the full-visible range. Assembling them into plasmonic molecules provides additional degrees of freedom for color manipulation. More importantly, the electric field in the gaps of plasmonic molecules can be enhanced by several orders of magnitude, which is highly desirable in single molecule sensing applications. In this dissertation, the fundamentals of plasmonic coupling are investigated through one-dimensional gold nanosphere chains. Using the directed self-assembly approach, multichromatic color-switchable plasmonic nanopixels composed of plasmonic atoms and molecules of various materials, sizes, shapes and geometries are integrated in one image with nanometer precision, which facilitates the encoding of complex spectral features with high relevance in security tagging and high density optical data storage. / 2017-01-01T00:00:00Z