Appendix B comprises an anthology of the poems discussed in this dissertation. / My dissertation examines the political and formal aspects of poetry written by working-class women in England and Scotland between 1830 and 1880. I analyse a poetic corpus that I have gathered from existing publications and new archival sources to assess what I call the literary labour politics of women whose poetry encounters, represents, and reacts to socio-historic change. The poetry of working-class women sheds light on the multidimensional intersections between poetry about labour and poetry as labour. I show that British working-class women writers were essential in the development of a working-class poetic aesthetic and political agenda by examining how their poetry engaged with European politics, slavery, gender inequality, child labour, education, industrialism, and poverty. The first section surveys the political and formal nature of the poetry written by working-class women immediately before and during the Chartist era to argue that gender complicates the political rubric of the working class during a period of intense social upheaval. I discuss the poetry of women who were published in James Morrisons The Pioneer, as well as E.H., F. Saunderson, Eliza Cook, Marie, and Mary Hutton. I read their poems against those written both by eighteenth-century working-class women writers and male Chartists to illuminate the intervention of nineteenth-century women in these literary and cultural contexts. The second section interrogates the politics of working-class womens poetry published after the dissolution of the Chartists in 1848 through a discussion of two pseudonymous factory girl poets, Fanny Forrester, and Ellen Johnston. I argue that even as working-class womens poetry increasingly engaged with broad social issues, it also reflected the continuing importance of poetry itself as a means of individual empowerment and worked against the prose tradition to argue for the unique possibilities of poetic expression. The thematic and formal complexity of the poetry of these working-class women allows us to assess the various poetic strategies they developed to respond to the urgent and vexed issues of social reform and personal and national relationships, as they articulated poetic and personal identities as women labouring poets against a society not attuned to their voices.

My dissertation examines the political and formal aspects of poetry written by working-class women in England and Scotland between 1830 and 1880. I analyse a poetic corpus that I have gathered from existing publications and new archival sources to assess what I call the “literary labour politics” of women whose poetry encounters, represents, and reacts to socio-historic change. The poetry of working-class women sheds light on the multidimensional intersections between poetry about labour and poetry as labour. I show that British working-class women writers were essential in the development of a working-class poetic aesthetic and political agenda by examining how their poetry engaged with European politics, slavery, gender inequality, child labour, education, industrialism, and poverty. The first section surveys the political and formal nature of the poetry written by working-class women immediately before and during the Chartist era to argue that gender complicates the political rubric of the working class during a period of intense social upheaval. I discuss the poetry of women who were published in James Morrison’s The Pioneer, as well as E.H., F. Saunderson, Eliza Cook, “Marie,” and Mary Hutton. I read their poems against those written both by eighteenth-century working-class women writers and male Chartists to illuminate the intervention of nineteenth-century women in these literary and cultural contexts. The second section interrogates the politics of working-class women’s poetry published after the dissolution of the Chartists in 1848 through a discussion of two pseudonymous “factory girl” poets, Fanny Forrester, and Ellen Johnston. I argue that even as working-class women’s poetry increasingly engaged with broad social issues, it also reflected the continuing importance of poetry itself as a means of individual empowerment and worked against the prose tradition to argue for the unique possibilities of poetic expression. The thematic and formal complexity of the poetry of these working-class women allows us to assess the various poetic strategies they developed to respond to the urgent and vexed issues of social reform and personal and national relationships, as they articulated poetic and personal identities as women labouring poets against a society not attuned to their voices. / Appendix B comprises an anthology of the poems discussed in this dissertation.

The thesis examines the relationship between poetry and politics under Elizabeth and James, tracing certain changes in modes of artistic representation through historical analysis of particular masques and entertainments. The introductory chaper discusses the close connection between poetry and ceremonial in the Renaissance: in panegyric the poet's private imagination is subordinated to public images, and his art is one of ceremonial "ornamentation". Subsequent chapters discuss the effects of social, political and religious changes on this ceremonial poetic. Chapter 31 relates the political symbolism of Tho Faerie Queene to the tradition of pageantry on which it was based, and analyzes the growing tension in the later books between public and private vallies. Chapter III discusses the new developments of the 1590s, arguing that both in politics and in literature new tensions were being felt. The first part deals with the poets associated with Essex, the second with the poetry of Sir Walter Ralegh. Chapter IV discusses the effects on panegyric of the new, less external concepts of decorum introduced by the writers of the "plain style", with special reference to FullcGreville and Samuel Daniel. Chapter Y deals with Jonson's masques, showing that while in political concent they mirror the line taken by the king and his more conservative advisers, in artistic form they display an ambivalence characteristic of Jonson's work. Chapter VI discusses the Jacobean poets wco imitated Spenser, showing the continuity of l.heir political concerns from the public poetry of the 1590s and arguing that Spenserian poetry, especially pastoral, became a protest against the corruption of the Jacobean court. A newly discovered draft of a masque for the wedding of Princess Elizabeth in 1613 is included in an Appendix.

A tese se dedica ao estudo das relações entre o poético e o político na escritura de Paul Valéry entre 1940 e 1945, anos arrasados pela segunda guerra e também os últimos da vida do escritor. O período estudado começa, assim, no verão de 1940, quando a França perde a batalha contra os alemães, Paris é ocupada pelos nazistas e Valéry, abrigado no norte do país, põe-se a escrever o terceiro Fausto que ele há tempos desejava compor. A pesquisa se estende até maio de 1945, pleno apogeu da Libération Française, quando o escritor publica em jornal gaulista (aquelas que [não] deveriam ser) as Ultima Verba do vencedor do conflito, e termina o poema em prosa LAnge depois de duas décadas de trabalho sobre esse texto. Seguindo a escritura diária dos cahiers de Valéry e as notas do curso de poïética ministrado pelo poeta no Collége de France naqueles anos, a tese busca apreender como as estratégias poéticas das obras analisadas Ultima Verba, LAnge e Mon Faust são concebidas para enfrentar os acontecimentos esmagadores daquele período. Com efeito, elas modulam recursos sensíveis, significativos e formais do ato poético, pondo em contradicção as forças heterogêneas do discurso e sua dicção, da voz e do pensamento (lógos e foné), ser e convenção, estabelecendo uma implicação recíproca do poético e do político: o poeta como político profundo, entre as majorités do som e do sentido. Essa implicação põe em jogo a autonomia e a soberania da linguagem poética, os modos de circulação do discurso numa sociedade democrática e o gesto do poeta frente às aporias do processo de escrita. Desse modo, procura-se menos revelar a política de suas escolhas (as vias que o escritor abre ou fecha; ainda que isso seja parte do problema, não é o principal) do que pensar na política de sua poética, perceptível na modulação das diferentes maneiras de ver que compõem o poema, uma modulação que cala ou interrompe, escuta ou prolonga suas hesitações. Assim, veremos que os dilemas da fiducia política e da ciência moderna elaborados nos brouillons do ciclo fáustico e nas notas do curso de poïética reencontram a hesitação prolongada, o inacabamento e infinitização contínua do ato poético, sempre em curso de driblar injunções fiduciárias e técnicas, num momento em que a Europa moderna tinha mais do que nunca carência de repensar os pactos, moedas, projetos e o próprio para, [vencedor, nesse] momento em curso na literatura e na comunidade. / The thesis aims to study the relations between the poetic and the political in the writings of Paul Valéry from 1940 to 1945, a time crushed by the war and the last years of the poets life. This study covers a period that goes from the summer of 1940 during the last weeks of the Battle of France, when Paris was occupied by the germans and the poet, sheltered in the countrys north, starts to write the third Faust that for a long time he wished to write up to may 1945, in the pinnacle of the Libération Française, when the writer publishes in a gaullist journal (those that should [not] be) the ultima verba of the wars winner, and completes, after two decades of writing labour, the prose poem LAnge. By following the the cahiers daily writings and the Collège de Frances course in poetics lesson notes of those years, we seek to understand the strategies conceived to confront the periods crushing events, specially in the analysed texts Ultima Verba, LAnge and Mon Faust. In fact, they modulate the aesthetic infinitys sensible, significant and formal resources in the contradiction of the heterogeneous forces of the discourse and its diction (its elocution), voice and thought (logos and phone), being and convention, thus establishing a reciprocal implication of the poetic and the political: the poet as a profound politician who works between the majorities of sound and sense. This implication reflects upon the poetic languages autonomy and sovereignty, the discourse circulation modes in a democratic society and the poets act in relation to the writing process issues. Thus, this gesture would be put in place less for revealing the politics in Valérys choices (the paths he opens or closes; this is also part of the problem, but it is not the main question) than for thinking about his poetics own politics, one deployed in the modulation of the different manners of seeing implicated in the poem, a modulation that silents or stops, listens or prolongs their hesitations. Then, we shall see that the fiducias politics and modern science dilemmas elaborated by the faustic cycle drafts and by the course in poetics lesson notes find theirselves in the company of the verse as prolonged hesitation, of the poetics act incompleteness and infinitization, always in the process of dribbling the fiduciary and technical injunctions, in a time when modern Europe had more than ever to rethink the pacts, currencies, projects and even the stop, [winner, in this] moment that had currency in literature and community.

Cette recherche se propose d’étudier la notion de « métrique » au sein de l’œuvre poétique et critique de Franco Fortini. Ce concept fera l’objet d’une analyse esthétique croisée aux domaines de l’éthique et de la politique. Le travail s’articule autour des différentes significations des concepts de métrique et de biographie, un couple de concepts utilisé par Fortini comme titre d’un poème publié dans « Officina » en 1955 et lors d’une conférence présentée à Genève en 1980. Nous avons divisé notre recherche en trois parties. Dans la première partie, nous avons examiné les concepts clés du parcours poétique et intellectuel de Fortini – à savoir l’histoire, la littérature, la forme et la figure – analysés selon leurs significations respectives dans le parcours biographique de l’auteur. Dans la deuxième partie, nous avons ensuite analysé les essais sur la métrique publiés vers la fin des années cinquante, pour sonder le lien entre « liberté » et « nécessité » à la lumière de la dialectique entre individu et collectivité. Cette partie tisse aussi une comparaison entre la théorie du vers et la pratique de composition chez Pasolini, les Novissimi et Amelia Rosselli, et développe une étude anthropologique sur la relation entre le rythme et le mètre à partir de l’œuvre de Ernesto De Martino. La troisième et dernière partie, enfin, expose les limites d’une métrique conçue comme « mesure arithmétique », en approfondissant la réflexion sur la forme à la lumière de la critique du rythme d’Henri Meschonnic, comparée au travail de traduction de Fortini. L’étude de ce rapport nous a ainsi permis d’évaluer l’impact des modèles de Brecht et de Goethe sur le choix formel de l’auteur. / The research investigates the notion of “metrics” in Franco Fortini’s works, extending aesthetic inquiry to ethics and politics. The work is based on the different variations of the couple metrics and biography, used by Fortini as a title for both a poem published in 1955 and a conference paper presented at the University of Geneva in 1980: these dates set the time span of the research. The thesis is composed of three parts. The first one examines the key concepts of Fortini’s poetic and intellectual path – history, literature, form and figure – in the different meanings that they assume along his biographical trajectory. The second part analyses the essays of the late 1950s about metrics and stylistic criticism, verifying the relationship between «freedom» and «necessity» in a dialectic between the individual and the community. The second part also hosts a confrontation with the theory of verse and compositional practice of Pasolini, the Novissimi and Amelia Rosselli. The third and last part shows the limits of a metric conceived as an «arithmetic measure»: in order to delve into the theory of form, I confront Meschonnic’s critique of rhythm with Fortini’s translations. The study of these latter allows us to estimate the impact of models such as Brecht and Goethe on the formal choices of the author.

A tese se dedica ao estudo das relações entre o poético e o político na escritura de Paul Valéry entre 1940 e 1945, anos arrasados pela segunda guerra e também os últimos da vida do escritor. O período estudado começa, assim, no verão de 1940, quando a França perde a batalha contra os alemães, Paris é ocupada pelos nazistas e Valéry, abrigado no norte do país, põe-se a escrever o terceiro Fausto que ele há tempos desejava compor. A pesquisa se estende até maio de 1945, pleno apogeu da Libération Française, quando o escritor publica em jornal gaulista (aquelas que [não] deveriam ser) as Ultima Verba do vencedor do conflito, e termina o poema em prosa LAnge depois de duas décadas de trabalho sobre esse texto. Seguindo a escritura diária dos cahiers de Valéry e as notas do curso de poïética ministrado pelo poeta no Collége de France naqueles anos, a tese busca apreender como as estratégias poéticas das obras analisadas Ultima Verba, LAnge e Mon Faust são concebidas para enfrentar os acontecimentos esmagadores daquele período. Com efeito, elas modulam recursos sensíveis, significativos e formais do ato poético, pondo em contradicção as forças heterogêneas do discurso e sua dicção, da voz e do pensamento (lógos e foné), ser e convenção, estabelecendo uma implicação recíproca do poético e do político: o poeta como político profundo, entre as majorités do som e do sentido. Essa implicação põe em jogo a autonomia e a soberania da linguagem poética, os modos de circulação do discurso numa sociedade democrática e o gesto do poeta frente às aporias do processo de escrita. Desse modo, procura-se menos revelar a política de suas escolhas (as vias que o escritor abre ou fecha; ainda que isso seja parte do problema, não é o principal) do que pensar na política de sua poética, perceptível na modulação das diferentes maneiras de ver que compõem o poema, uma modulação que cala ou interrompe, escuta ou prolonga suas hesitações. Assim, veremos que os dilemas da fiducia política e da ciência moderna elaborados nos brouillons do ciclo fáustico e nas notas do curso de poïética reencontram a hesitação prolongada, o inacabamento e infinitização contínua do ato poético, sempre em curso de driblar injunções fiduciárias e técnicas, num momento em que a Europa moderna tinha mais do que nunca carência de repensar os pactos, moedas, projetos e o próprio para, [vencedor, nesse] momento em curso na literatura e na comunidade. / The thesis aims to study the relations between the poetic and the political in the writings of Paul Valéry from 1940 to 1945, a time crushed by the war and the last years of the poets life. This study covers a period that goes from the summer of 1940 during the last weeks of the Battle of France, when Paris was occupied by the germans and the poet, sheltered in the countrys north, starts to write the third Faust that for a long time he wished to write up to may 1945, in the pinnacle of the Libération Française, when the writer publishes in a gaullist journal (those that should [not] be) the ultima verba of the wars winner, and completes, after two decades of writing labour, the prose poem LAnge. By following the the cahiers daily writings and the Collège de Frances course in poetics lesson notes of those years, we seek to understand the strategies conceived to confront the periods crushing events, specially in the analysed texts Ultima Verba, LAnge and Mon Faust. In fact, they modulate the aesthetic infinitys sensible, significant and formal resources in the contradiction of the heterogeneous forces of the discourse and its diction (its elocution), voice and thought (logos and phone), being and convention, thus establishing a reciprocal implication of the poetic and the political: the poet as a profound politician who works between the majorities of sound and sense. This implication reflects upon the poetic languages autonomy and sovereignty, the discourse circulation modes in a democratic society and the poets act in relation to the writing process issues. Thus, this gesture would be put in place less for revealing the politics in Valérys choices (the paths he opens or closes; this is also part of the problem, but it is not the main question) than for thinking about his poetics own politics, one deployed in the modulation of the different manners of seeing implicated in the poem, a modulation that silents or stops, listens or prolongs their hesitations. Then, we shall see that the fiducias politics and modern science dilemmas elaborated by the faustic cycle drafts and by the course in poetics lesson notes find theirselves in the company of the verse as prolonged hesitation, of the poetics act incompleteness and infinitization, always in the process of dribbling the fiduciary and technical injunctions, in a time when modern Europe had more than ever to rethink the pacts, currencies, projects and even the stop, [winner, in this] moment that had currency in literature and community.

Ce travail de thèse s'articule autour d'une définition historique qui a été formulée par Cesare Pavese, lorsqu'il a défini les années 30 et 40 du XXe siècle comme les deux décennies de la traduction par excellence. Si les études menées jusqu'à aujourd'hui se sont penchées de manière approfondie presque seulement sur la traduction des romans et cela en choisissant comme langue source privilégiée l'anglais ou le français, nous avons concentré notre analyse sur la traduction, l'écriture et la critique poétiques réalisées dans la période s'étalant de l'entre-deux-guerres jusqu'à la fin des années 40. La poésie était en effet le lieu critique, traductif et créatif le plus fréquenté. Un véritable besoin de poésie animait les cénacles des intellectuels italiens à Florence comme à Milan, à Parme, à Rome et également à Turin. Les échanges entre les artistes, critiques, poètes et traducteurs se jouaient pour la plupart sur le terrain de la poésie, sans être, au moins jusqu'au milieu des années 30, particulièrement entravés par la censure fasciste. En effet l'Italie devait, même aux yeux du fascisme, connaître un Baudelaire, un Rimbaud et un Eliot parlant italien. La poésie prenait une place sans précédents dans la vie culturelle et littéraire de l'époque et devint aussi un champ d'action concret : écrire en vers bouleverse autant l'ordre syntactique de la langue que l'habitude à concevoir la réalité de manière univoque et sans opacités.La poésie, pour reprendre une pensée d'Henri Meschonnic, est « contre le maintien de l'ordre », et se propose comme une forme d'engagement profond qui implique les consciences et leur prise de position face à la réalité. Dans une perspective plus large, le discours poétique s'entrelace avec le discours politique, si par politique on présuppose tout effort visant à garantir le bien-être de l'homme et la création des conditions qui permettent la réalisation au degré le plus haut de la liberté de tout individu.L'objet d'intérêt de la traduction poétique fusionne inévitablement avec la poésie tout court, ne serait-ce que parce que toute poésie est en tout cas toujours une traduction. Faire et construire en poésie sont devenus ainsi les axes de cette étude qui essaye de rendre compte constamment des voix de plusieurs personnalités qui étaient à la fois poètes, traducteurs et critiques littéraires. La partie finale de ce travail se concentre ainsi sur la naissance d'un nouveau type d'intellectuel qui est poète, traducteur et critique, et qui, très souvent, est aussi un éditeur. Sa participation à la vie sociale, politique et éditoriale du pays devient de plus en plus significative et fera de la poésie le sujet de plusieurs collections éditoriales et de nombreuses autres publications.Nous avons essayé de montrer quel type d'engagement peut émaner de l'écriture des poèmes et de la pratique de la traduction poétique, en décrivant quel militantisme profond et passionné peut surgir de la 'fréquentation' de la poésie, qui se propose comme une constellation de sens constamment “constructible”, comme une présence jamais définitive. Cette mise en valeur de l'inachevé contribue à la mise en question de l'identité du sujet et à la poursuite de son salut, à la multiplication des hypothèses, et à l'ouverture des horizons. En se proposant avec son corps mouvant et émouvant, la poésie sera, pendant le fascisme, un levier d'indisciplinarité face à la règle, s'imposant comme un insoupçonnable instrument de contestation et de résistance. / This thesis focuses on a historical definition given by Cesare Pavese, when he defined the 30s and 40s of the twentieth century as the translation's period par excellence in Italy. The previous studies have looked extensively on the translation of novels and most of these researches choose English or French as principal language sources. This Phd thesis concentrates instead the analysis first of all on poetic translation and also on writing poetry as well as on poetic criticism ‘made' in the inter-war period until the late 40s. Poetry was incontestably the critical, translational and creative locus. Poetry was the main interest of the circles of Italian intellectuals in Florence and in Milan, in Parma, in Rome and in Turin also. Exchanges between artists, critics, poets and translators played mostly in the field of poetry, more or less without being particularly hampered by the fascist censorship, until the mid-30s. Poetry became a field of concrete action because it upsets language's syntactic order and this encourages a new conception and design of the reality, as well a way to fight every monolithic solution refusing opacity and incompleteness.Using an expression of Henri Meschonnic poetry is “against the maintenance of the order”, and presents itself as a form of deep commitment (in order words a form of “engagement”) that involves awareness and taking a stand against reality. In a poetic discourse the political element is closed involved. In fact we assume that “politics” is any attempt to fight for the welfare of man and every attempt to achieve the highest degree of freedom of every individual.The subject of criticism and translating poetry inevitably merge with poetry at all, and it is to consider that poetry is in any case always a translation. Poetry and its effects have become the axes of this study that tries to present consistently the voices of several people who were poets, translators and literary critics at the same time. The final part of this work concentrates on the birth of a new type of intellectual who is a poet, a translator, a critic and often also a publisher.We tried to show also what type of engagement may trigger the writing of poems and the practice of poetic translation, describing how deep and passionate activism may arise 'attending' poetry. Poetry is always proposed as a constellation of meaning constantly "building" as a presence never definitive. This enhancement of the unfinished contributes to the questioning of the subject's identity and to the pursuit of his salvation. Every poetic multiplication of hypotheses allows the opening of a lot of horizons. Offering her moving body poetry has been, even during Fascism, a lever of great indisciplinarity face to the rule settled by the dictatorship and it has been an unsuspected instrument of protest and resistance.

Avec l'avènement du prince en 27 av. J.-C. s'ouvre à Rome ce qu'on appelle le siècle d'Auguste et qui correspond à une période de révolution à la fois politique, mais aussi culturelle. Auteurs et poètes étaient engagés dans cette réflexion collective sur les fondements de la Ville, son identité, ses rapports avec son prince et ses dieux, I'imperium d'Auguste et les modèles à offrir à la nouvelle génération. La thèse entend étudier la manière dont le poète latin Horace participa non seulement au renouvellement des formes poétiques à Rome, mais aussi à ces réflexions sur le nouus status. Comment la lyrique archaïque grecque qu'il tente d'acclimater à Rome dans ses Odes, mais aussi les mythes grecs qu'il réélabore et fait entrer en résonance avec les enjeux du principat, lui permettent d'évoquer les relations privilégiées de Rome et de son prince ? / With the accession of the princeps in 27 BC, begins in Rome the "Age of Augustus" - a period of political, but also cultural revolution. Authors and poets joined this collective thinking about the foundations of the City, its identity, its relationship with its princeps and its gods, the imperium of Augustus, and the ideals to offer to the new generation... This dissertation aims to analyse how the Latin poet Horace took part not only to the renewal of the poetic forms in Rome, but also to these reflections around the novus status. ln which way the archaic Greek lyric, that he tries to adapt to Rome in his Odes, as well as the Greek mythology, that he recreates to make them echo the challenges of the Principate, make it possible for Horace to conjure the privileged relation ship between Rome and its princeps?

The aim of this thesis is to arrive at a characterisation of twentieth century poetry and science by means of a detailed study of the work of four poets who engaged extensively with science and whose writing lives spanned the greater part of the period. The study of science in the work of the four chosen poets, Hugh MacDiarmid (1892 – 1978), Judith Wright (1915 – 2000), Edwin Morgan (1920 – 2010), and Miroslav Holub (1923 – 1998), is preceded by a literature survey and an initial theoretical chapter. This initial part of the thesis outlines the interdisciplinary history of the academic subject of poetry and science, addressing, amongst other things, the challenges presented by the episodes known as the ‘two cultures' and the ‘science wars'. Seeking to offer a perspective on poetry and science more aligned to scientific materialism than is typical in the interdiscipline, a systemic challenge to Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) is put forward in the first chapter. Additionally, the founding work of poetry and science, I. A. Richards's Science and Poetry (1926), is assessed both in the context in which it was written, and from a contemporary viewpoint; and, as one way to understand science in poetry, a theory of the creative misreading of science is developed, loosely based on Harold Bloom's The Anxiety of Influence (1973). The detailed study of science in poetry commences in Chapter II with Hugh MacDiarmid's late work in English, dating from his period on the Shetland Island of Whalsay (1933 – 1941). The thesis in this chapter is that this work can be seen as a radical integration of poetry and science; this concept is considered in a variety of ways including through a computational model, originally suggested by Robert Crawford. The Australian poet Judith Wright, the subject of Chapter III, is less well known to poetry and science, but a detailed engagement with physics can be identified, including her use of four-dimensional imagery, which has considerable support from background evidence. Biology in her poetry is also studied in the light of recent work by John Holmes. In Chapter IV, science in the poetry of Edwin Morgan is discussed in terms of its origin and development, from the perspective of the mythologised science in his science fiction poetry, and from the ‘hard' technological perspective of his computer poems. Morgan's work is cast in relief by readings which are against the grain of some but not all of his published comments. The thesis rounds on its theme of materialism with the fifth and final chapter which studies the work of Miroslav Holub, a poet and practising scientist in communist-era Prague. Holub's work, it is argued, represents a rare and important literary expression of scientific materialism. The focus on materialism in the thesis is not mechanistic, nor exclusive of the domain of the imagination; instead it frames the contrast between the original science and the transformed poetic version. The thesis is drawn together in a short conclusion.