The thesis analyses US foreign policy toward Italy in the postwar period by considering the multi-faceted nature of the relationship between the countries. It looks at the motivations and challenges facing American visions of a stable anti-communist Italy, as well at the hopes and limitations facing Italian interlocutors in their interaction with the US hegemon. In analysing the overlaps and dissimilarities between policy toward the country and broader approaches in Europe, it explores how the Cold War shaped the US attitude toward Italy and how Italy influenced American conceptualisation of the Cold War. With particular focus on the attempt to bolster anti-communist groups before the first Italian national election in April 1948, it charts the emergence of a perception of success within the Truman Administration vis-à-vis the effectiveness of its efforts to prevent a communist ascension to power. Confident that they had shaped the election outcome, US officials considered intervention as an inaugural case of ‘Political Warfare,’ which was defined as the use of ‘all means short of war’ to achieve national objectives. Such perceptions were significant for how American officials considered events in Italy during the previous years, while it held important ramifications for the future, problematic, trajectory of US-Italian relations and ongoing American efforts to engage in organised Political Warfare.

My thesis explores language policy and practice in the history of the people of Gibraltar between 1940 and 1985. This period covers the wartime Evacuation and the Spanish border restrictions and closure, and it is also fundamental in the emergence of Gibraltarian identity and democratic rights. My contention is that these developments were facilitated by growing accessibility to the English language. From being largely the preserve of the colonial establishment and the elite, it emerged as pre-eminent in official use, the media and culture, and higher oral registers. This change was hastened by the Evacuation, which increased awareness of the need for English. The Clifford Report of 1944 reformed the whole education system and gave a central role to English. Clifford, Gibraltar’s Colonial Secretary, and indeed educationalists at the Colonial Office, proved themselves far more enlightened than their governing counterparts in Gibraltar. Their reform greatly contributed to political development in the following decades. With the Spanish border closure, the English language and the sense of attachment to Britain gained further consolidation, co-existing with the move away from overt colonialism. In my examination of language behaviour in Gibraltar, including bilingualism and the use of Spanish, interview material supplements written sources.

This thesis examines strategies of rule deployed during the British occupation of north-western Germany from 1945 to 1949 and explores instances of cooperation and conflict between the occupiers and the occupied population. While the literature has primarily looked at the occupation through the lens of big political projects, this study analyses the application of quotidian ruling strategies and the making of stability on the ground. Techniques for controlling the German population were devised during the war and transmitted to officials through extensive training. Lessons from previous occupations and imperial experiences also entered the Military Government’s ruling philosophy by way of the biographical composition of its top cadre. Once in Germany, the British instituted a system of ‘indirect rule’ which relied on focal points of visibility as embodied by their local officials charged with cooperating with German notables, and invisible instances of supervision in the form of mass surveillance of civilian communications. To illustrate the way the occupiers dealt with conflict, the thesis analyses the dispensation of punishment for breaking Military Government laws, demonstrating that the British often issued severe punishment when their monopoly of force was contested, thus belying the notion of a particularly docile occupation. During mass popular protests, however, they sought to use moderate German trade unionists as intermediaries tasked with diffusing popular unrest, who were co-opted in exchange for material and propagandistic support. The British also used German administrators at the local and regional level, many of whom had a distinctively technocratic and conservative profile and who were appointed for their administrative experience rather than for their political inclinations. Through lobbying by British ecclesiastical figures, the occupiers also cooperated extensively with the German Churches, who were seen as effective partners in the re-Christianisation of Germany and increasingly as an essential bulwark against Communism. The thesis concludes that the long-term legacies of the British occupation lay in the effects of ‘indirect rule’, which exacerbated social inequalities by strengthening the profile of certain social elites at the expense of mass politics. The occupation is finally placed within the comparative context of occupations in Western Europe during the mid-20th century, which had the common legacy of buttressing elites who were primarily concerned with the making of stability rather than with participatory democracy, thus giving the post-war era its conservative mould.

Com esta investigação proponho o estudo da cultura por uma vertente não canônica, convergindo para o conteúdo humano, imaginativo e desejante presente na cidade de São Paulo na segunda metade do século XX. Para isso, trabalhei entre outras fontes com a obra de alguns mediadores culturais: Carolina Maria de Jesus, Plínio Marcos, João Antonio e Ozualdo Candeias, que se encontravam nas vias de comunicação entrecruzada entre a cultura formal, o espetáculo e o gesto espontâneo, inscrevendo suas impressões, de forma delicada, com um rústico alfabeto na superfície instável que era a cidade de São Paulo entre as décadas de 40 e 60, encantando com palavras, imagens, gestos e ritmos, ao mesmo tempo em que se deixavam encantar pela gestualidade, a exuberância e o transbordamento que os cercavam. Parti assim de uma concepção de cultura como criação móvel e movente, que envolve o uso experimental e tático de elementos dispensados por diferentes segmentos da sociedade e das sobras de tradições as mais diversas por parte daqueles que não tinham paradeiro, mas que buscavam um canto. O que traz em si o desvio (détournement) situacionista de Guy Debord, a caça não-autorizada (braconnage) de Michel de Certeau e a viração de João Antonio e Plínio Marcos, ou seja, a apropriação não permitida, nas fímbrias da invisibilidade, daquilo que é lançado pela sociedade e o seu uso em sentidos diferentes daqueles que foram determinados, não apenas com a intenção de sobrevivência, mas também, e foi o que aqui mais me interessou, com a possibilidade do \"desperdício\" da criação / This research proposes the study of culture under a non canonical view, which converges to the human, imaginative and desiring content found in the city of São Paulo during the second half of the 20th century. To that end, I researched the works of the following cultural mediators, among others: Carolina Maria de Jesus, Plínio Marcos, João Antonio, and Ozualdo Candeias, who were at the communication crossroads of formal culture, the spectacle and the spontaneous gesture, and used a rustic alphabet to write with grace their impressions on the unstable surface which was the city of São Paulo between the 1940s and 1960s. They enchanted people with their words, images, and rhythms while they became themselves enchanted by the gestures, the exuberance and the overflow of emotions around them. My starting point was therefore a concept of culture as creation on the move and movable, which involves the experimental and tactical use by drifters - looking for a haven and a song - of elements cast away by different segments of society, and leftovers of diverse traditions. This carries in itself Guy Debord\'s situational deviation (détournement), Michel de Certeau\'s poach (braconnage), and João Antonio\'s viração, that is, unallowed appropriation, on the fringes of invisibility, of what society throws away to be used with meanings that are different from those that were previously determined, not only for the purpose of survival, but - and this has interested me most - as a possibility of \"waste\" of creation

This thesis seeks to demonstrate that, during the post war and early Cold War years, the US Federal government, and in particular the Executive branch, was inspired to increase the role which it played in the US Education system. It also seeks to chart the methods it utilised in order to do so. One inspiration was the desire to direct the US education system towards a curriculum which better benefitted the nation’s Cold War effort, including placing a greater emphasis upon scientific education and training, more tightly regulating the discussion over democratic vs. communist ideologies in the classroom and the pursuit of a greater equalisation in opportunity for African American students. Further inspiration was provided by both the widespread expansion of centralised government programs and the increased importance of education to social progress witnessed across the world after the Second World War, and both President Truman’s own personal commitment to the equalisation of education opportunity, and the Democratic Party’s pursuit of black votes during the Truman Administration. This thesis charts the Executive and Judicial branches’ innovative and unorthodox usage of the powers available to them in order to garner greater influence over the education system, and assesses the varying rates of success of these programmes in order to demonstrate the significant and irrevocable shift in the relationship between the US Federal government and the US education system which occurred during the early Cold War.

Esta dissertação explora a obra de Theodor W. Adorno dando enfoque às questões concernentes à moral, articulando problemas de filosofia da história e sua dimensão política. O texto divide-se em três capítulos: o primeiro trata do diagnóstico de época do qual partimos, a saber, o mundo tal como ele se configurou após a Segunda Guerra Mundial. O segundo capítulo explora a dimensão prática ética e política imanente ao conceito de verdade na tradição da teoria crítica, de modo a considerar sua centralidade no âmbito de uma discussão sobre a moral. O terceiro capítulo, intitulado Antinomias da moral, disserta sobre a abordagem adorniana de problemas tradicionalmente vinculados à filosofia moral a partir de uma leitura da Minima Moralia, da Dialética Negativa e de Problemas de filosofia moral. / This dissertation explores the work of Theodor W. Adorno, shedding light at the problems regarding moral philosophy in an articulation with an interpretation of history and its political dimension. The text contains three chapters: the first one deals with the diagnosis of time of the post-war world. The second chapter explores the practical ethical and political dimension which is immanent to the truth concept employed in the tradition of critical theory, so that we can consider its centrality in the discussion on moral philosophy. The third chapter, entitled Antinomies of morals, discusses Adornos approach of traditional problems of moral philosophy, based mostly on an interpretation of his works Minima Moralia and Negative Dialectics, and his lectures.

Au cours de la Seconde Guerre mondiale se produit un phénomène éditorial sans précédent : alors que le contexte y est peu favorable, d’innombrables revues francophones sont créées, aussi bien en France métropolitaine que dans les colonies et à l’étranger, à l’instar de Fontaine, Poésie, Confluences, L’Arbalète, Cahiers de Poésie, Les Lettres françaises et bien d’autres encore. Elles viennent s’adjoindre aux périodiques qui existaient avant 1939 et qui ont réussi à se maintenir, afin de souligner la grandeur intellectuelle du pays. Ensemble, ils reprennent à leur compte la mission de La Nouvelle Revue Française, qui se trouve peu à peu dénaturée du fait de ses positions politiques avant d’être interdite : s’ils publient les textes d’écrivains reconnus, ils s’attachent aussi à lancer de jeunes auteurs qui, sans eux, n’auraient pu atteindre la notoriété qui a été la leur. Ainsi, jusqu’en 1953, date à laquelle La N.R.F. obtient l’autorisation de reparaître, ils contribuent à dessiner le paysage littéraire de la seconde moitié du XXe siècle.Les revues publiées entre 1939 et 1953 apparaissent comme la condition même de l’émergence de la poésie durant cette période. Elles contribuent à replacer ce genre au centre de toutes les attentions et favorisent son renouvellement. Elles font ainsi découvrir à leurs lecteurs les poèmes d’écrivains comme Olivier Larronde, Adrian Miatlev ou encore un certain Noël Mathieu, qui deviendra bientôt le fameux Pierre Emmanuel. Elles diffusent leurs textes aux côtés de ceux d’auteurs reconnus comme Paul Éluard ou Aragon, dont l’œuvre est alors en pleine mutation, et remettent sur le devant de la scène des écrivains du passé.Aux côtés des poèmes eux-mêmes se déploie dans les revues un important discours critique, dans lequel les chroniqueurs s’interrogent en profondeur sur les évolutions de la poésie. S’ils dessinent ses lignes de force, évoquant tour à tour un néo-classicisme, un renouvellement du lyrisme et une poésie tantôt engagée, tantôt matérialiste, tantôt spiritualiste, ils s’interrogent aussi sur leur mission et engagent de ce fait la critique dans une dimension autoréflexive. Leurs articles et chroniques, dont la fonction première est de contribuer au rayonnement de la poésie, apparaissent ainsi comme le berceau dans lequel s’éveille, peu à peu, la Nouvelle Critique, qui connaîtra son plein essor après 1953 et rayonnera durant toute la seconde moitié du XXe siècle. / The editorial scene during World War II was a witness to an unprecedented phenomenon. Beating the odds, a great number of French-speaking magazines were created, whether it be in Metropolitan France, in colonies or abroad. Among them : Fontaine, Poésie, Confluences, L’Arbalète, Cahiers de Poésie, Les Lettres françaises, and many more. These just add to the list of periodicals that predate 1939 and managed to stay afloat in order to underline the country’s intellectual greatness. Together - and in their own way - they upheld the mission of La Nouvelle Revue Française, whose nature was slowly altered because of its political views, before being shut down altogether. Not only did they publish renowned authors’ works, but they helped launch the careers of young authors who would not have been known otherwise. Hence, they contributed to the French literary landscape until 1953 - when La N.R.F. magazine was authorized to be published again.Without these magazines published between 1939 and 1953, poetry would have been completely forgotten during that era. Not only did they help make this genre the centre of attention and allowed its renewal but, thanks to them, readers discovered writers such as Olivier Larronde, Adrian Miatlev and Noël Mathieu – the latter would soon become the famous Pierre Emmanuel. Their work is published along those already renowned by Paul Éluard and Aragon – whose work was undergoing changes at the time – and they published long forgotten writers.Alongside these poems, criticism could be found in the columns of these magazines, in which chroniclers raise fundamental questions about the evolution of poetry. Pointing out main tendencies, they wrote about a newly found lyricism of a politically committed, materialistic or spiritualist poetry, but also about their own mission, which led to self-criticism. Their articles and chronicles whose prime goal was to help the prestige of poetry, slowly gave birth to the New Criticism, which knew full bloom after 1953 and shone throughout the second half of the twentieth century.

In December 1945, four months after the end of the Second World War, two soldiers meet on an aeroplane flying towards Port Hedland, located in north-west Western Australia, the Pilbara district. Frank Grey found the war a horrific experience and is deeply traumatised. He is returning home, after an absence of five years, hoping to reunite with his wife, get his old job back, and continue on with his life as it was before the war. Patrick Gray is an Aboriginal. He also found the war horrific. However, for him, serving in the A.I.F. was also a liberating experience. For the first time in his life he received equal pay and conditions of white men. He found equality. He is hoping that because he, and other Aborigines, served in the armed forces, the social conditions for Aborigines will have improved in the 6 years he's been away. They are both disappointed.

<p>Avhandlingen utforsker det poetiske mediets indre spenningsforhold mellom stemme og skrift slik dette manifesterer seg i Gunvor Hofmos (1921-95) lyrikk. Versifikasjonsfenomenet - lyrikksjangerens særlige karakteristikum - utgjør det analytiske brennpunktet i denne utforskningen.</p><p>Etter en innledende drøfting av stemmens status i moderne litteraturvitenskap generelt og i Hofmos forfatterskap spesielt, argumenteres det for å revitalisere versifikasjonsteorien for å gjøre den metodisk produktiv i lyrikkforskningen. I avhandlingens analytiske hoveddel dveles det ved noen karakteristiske diktformer i Hofmos lyriske produksjon: den tradisjonelle sangstrofen, det umetriske rimede verset, det dityrambiske friverset, den gammeltestamentlige parallellismen, elegien, prosadiktet og den imagistiske kortstrofen. Avslutningsvis undersøkes den skriftmedierte stemmen (som framtrer gjennom innenat lesning) ut fra poetens egen «kroppsstemme», slik denne oppleves auditivt/akustisk.</p><p>Avhandlingen søker med sitt fokus på formelle og mediale forhold å bidra til å fristille diktfortolkningen fra den dominerende psykologiserende og biografiske betraktningsmåte; denne har ikke bare rammet Gunvor Hofmos forfatterskap spesielt, men også kvinnelige lyrikere i sin alminnelighet. På et overordnet metodisk-teoretisk nivå er avhandlingen tradisjonsfornyende ved at den demonsterer hvordan analyse av versifikatoriske, rytmiske og andre tilsynelatende rent stilistiske forhold kan åpne opp for nye meningsdimensjoner i en poetisk tekst. Arbeidet søker i tillegg å fylle noe av det metodiske vakuumet som har oppstått i etterkrigstidens lyrikkforskning etter at det frie versets dominans langt på vei diskvalifiserte den tradisjonelle metrikken.</p><p>"Mellom stemme og skrift" er den første doktoravhandlingen om Gunvor Hofmos lyrikk.</p>

Avhandlingen utforsker det poetiske mediets indre spenningsforhold mellom stemme og skrift slik dette manifesterer seg i Gunvor Hofmos (1921-95) lyrikk. Versifikasjonsfenomenet - lyrikksjangerens særlige karakteristikum - utgjør det analytiske brennpunktet i denne utforskningen. Etter en innledende drøfting av stemmens status i moderne litteraturvitenskap generelt og i Hofmos forfatterskap spesielt, argumenteres det for å revitalisere versifikasjonsteorien for å gjøre den metodisk produktiv i lyrikkforskningen. I avhandlingens analytiske hoveddel dveles det ved noen karakteristiske diktformer i Hofmos lyriske produksjon: den tradisjonelle sangstrofen, det umetriske rimede verset, det dityrambiske friverset, den gammeltestamentlige parallellismen, elegien, prosadiktet og den imagistiske kortstrofen. Avslutningsvis undersøkes den skriftmedierte stemmen (som framtrer gjennom innenat lesning) ut fra poetens egen «kroppsstemme», slik denne oppleves auditivt/akustisk. Avhandlingen søker med sitt fokus på formelle og mediale forhold å bidra til å fristille diktfortolkningen fra den dominerende psykologiserende og biografiske betraktningsmåte; denne har ikke bare rammet Gunvor Hofmos forfatterskap spesielt, men også kvinnelige lyrikere i sin alminnelighet. På et overordnet metodisk-teoretisk nivå er avhandlingen tradisjonsfornyende ved at den demonsterer hvordan analyse av versifikatoriske, rytmiske og andre tilsynelatende rent stilistiske forhold kan åpne opp for nye meningsdimensjoner i en poetisk tekst. Arbeidet søker i tillegg å fylle noe av det metodiske vakuumet som har oppstått i etterkrigstidens lyrikkforskning etter at det frie versets dominans langt på vei diskvalifiserte den tradisjonelle metrikken. "Mellom stemme og skrift" er den første doktoravhandlingen om Gunvor Hofmos lyrikk.