Recent research evidence, primarily from the Western hemisphere, supports the belief that high quality preschool experience has long-lasting effects on the development of children's later lives (Ball, RSA Start Right Report, 1994; Bruner, 1980; Schweinhart, Barnes & Weikart, 1993; Sylva, 1993). The important questions posed for this investigation in Bahrain were: 1. Is attendance at preschool centres (educationally and care orientated) associated with higher scores on measures of child development when compared to a control group of children who remained at home? 2. Is attendance at educationally-orientated preschool associated with higher scores on developmental measures than attendance at care-orientated preschool? 3. Are educationally-orientated pre-schools providing 'a more favourable' environment when compared with care-orientated p re-schools? The method was a quasi-experimental design utilising pre and post measures over one academic school year period, 1992-1993 (approximately nine months). A total of eight preschool institutions were randomly (stratified sample) selected (four educationally-orientated centres and four care-orientated centres) from four catchment areas covering the entire island of Bahrain. Each area was represented by a sample of 35 children (matched on several background variables) from the two types of preschool orientations and the home group (N=140; 48 in educational group; 48 in care group; 44 in home group). A Family Background Questionnaire (FBQ) was applied on the total sample to measure differences between groups on several family characteristics, such as, parent's education, occupations, household structure, number of children in household, provisions for play and learning at home, parent childrearing attitudes and mother's expectations regarding the child's competence and behaviour. 111 Assessments were made of children's cognitive, social and emotional development: the Stanford-Binet: LIM Form (Terman & Merrill, 1960); the Arithmetic and Block Design Subtests from Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence: (Wechsler, 1963); the Draw-A-Person: (Harris, 1963); The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children: (Harter, 1983) and The Preschool Behaviour Checklist: (Richman & McGuire, 1982). All instruments were translated into Arabic, back-translated (Brislin, Lonner, Thomdike, 1973) and pilot tested for cultural acceptability. For the main study (N=140), the 96 preschool attenders were tested soon after school entry (October, 1992) and then again at school year end in June, 1993, while the 44 children serving as the control group were tested in their homes. All testing was carried out in the children's home language. Additionally, two assessments procedures were used for studying the preschool environments: the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale (Harms & Clifford, 1980); and the Target Child Observation Instrument (Sylva, Roy & Painter, 1980). The results indicated that attendance at preschool centres (care and educationally-orientated) was associated with higher performance on most aspects of development when compared with children who stayed at home. There were significant gains on measures of cognitive development (Stanford- Binet; WPPSI; Draw-A-Person); social competence measures, Perceived Competence; and behavioural/emotional stability for preschool attenders when compared to home children. Multiple regression analyses showed that children in centre-based programmes made significant improvement over the year interval between pre-and post testing: A further within-groups regression analysis revealed that no particular preschool within either group was accounting for the higher/lower scores. Children attending educationally-orientated pre-schools significantly outperformed children at care-orientated pre-schools and at home on all the measures of development and they made significant improvement over the tested time period (Stanford-Binet: p<.001; WPPSI Subtests, Arithmetic and Block Design: p<.001; Draw-A-Person: p<.001; Preschool Behaviour Checklist: p<.001; Harters Perceived Competence (Cognitive and Physical Competence) and Acceptance Scale (Peer and Maternal Acceptance): p<.00l. When comparing preschool environments (care and educational) it was found that the educationally-orientated settings offered a greater degree of attention to iv personal care, language/reasoning experiences and the opportunity for creative and social development when compared with the care orientated pre-schools (ECERS, p<.O1). Teachers at the educational centres were more inclined to support, question and have dialogue with the children when compared to teachers at the care centres. Children at care centres engaged more in adultdirected activities, spent less time in challenging tasks for shorter periods of time (concentration bouts) and had more dialogue with other children when compared with children at educationally-orientated preschools (Target Child Time Sampling). Implications of this research for preschool educators in Bahrain are discussed as well as varying definitions of 'quality.'

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de NÃvel Superior / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / O estudo teve como objetivo construir um diagnÃstico de enfermagem voltado para o crescimento e desenvolvimento infantil na categoria promoÃÃo da saÃde. Estudo metodolÃgico, desenvolvido em trÃs etapas de validaÃÃo de diagnÃsticos de enfermagem, conforme preconizado por Hoskins (1989): anÃlise de conceito, validaÃÃo por especialistas e validaÃÃo clÃnica. Para anÃlise de conceito, utilizaram-se como referÃncias o modelo de anÃlise de conceito proposto por Rodgers (2000) e a revisÃo integrativa da literatura proposta por Mendes, Silveira e GalvÃo (2008). Para seleÃÃo das produÃÃes, buscaram-se cinco bases de dados: Scopus, Pubmed, Cinahl, Lilacs e Cochrane, com os descritores: crescimento e desenvolvimento; lactente; prÃ-escolar; e as suas sinonÃmias nas lÃnguas inglesa e espanhola. A anÃlise de conceito foi subsidiada por 83 estudos. Com relaÃÃo aos conceitos dos fenÃmenos crescimento e desenvolvimento, ainda hà muitas controvÃrsias quanto ao emprego deles, tendo em vista que a literatura traz os fenÃmenos dissociados ou agregados. O crescimento abrange aspectos fisiolÃgicos relacionados Ãs alteraÃÃes no tamanho e na forma, remetendo Ãs medidas corporais. O desenvolvimento à definido como um fenÃmeno amplo e complexo, integrando os domÃnios: mental, cognitivo, comportamental, perceptivo, motor, fÃsico. O levantamento da literatura contribuiu para a elaboraÃÃo de 15 caracterÃsticas definidoras distribuÃdas nos domÃnios: seis no fÃsico, seis no cognitivo e trÃs no psicossocial. A etapa de validaÃÃo com especialistas compreendeu a apreciaÃÃo do instrumento constituÃdo por duas partes: 1Â) caracterizaÃÃo dos especialistas e 2Â) proposta diagnÃstica: tÃtulo, definiÃÃo, domÃnio 13, caracterÃsticas definidoras com suas definiÃÃes conceituais e operacionais (referÃncias empÃricas) por 22 especialistas na Ãrea da saÃde da crianÃa, predominantemente do sexo feminino (94,4%), doutores (55,6%), concentrados na RegiÃo Nordeste (61,1%), onde exerceram suas atividades no Ãltimo ano como docentes de InstituiÃÃes de Ensino Superior (IES) (83,3%). O tempo de formaÃÃo dos especialistas foi em mÃdia de 13,1 anos (Â8,5). Quanto à estrutura do diagnÃstico, a maioria deles apontou o tÃtulo denominado DisposiÃÃo para desenvolvimento infantil melhorado (61,1%) como o mais adequado para o diagnÃstico de enfermagem em construÃÃo. Todos os especialistas concordaram que o diagnÃstico proposto deve estar incluÃdo no domÃnio 13 â crescimento/desenvolvimento (100%), e na classe que distribui os fenÃmenos em: 1- crescimento e 2- desenvolvimento (55,6%). A maioria dos especialistas optou pelo conceito 1 (55,6%). Parte dos especialistas sugeriu o acrÃscimo no instrumento de algumas peculiaridades da fase do lactente referentes Ãs caracterÃsticas definidoras. A validaÃÃo clÃnica foi realizada com 45 lactentes avaliados durante a consulta de puericultura em um Centro de SaÃde da FamÃlia. A maioria deles do sexo masculino (55,6%). Metade dos lactentes apresentou idade de 5 meses, com mÃes/responsÃveis com idade mÃdia de 24 anos. As caracterÃsticas definidoras obtiveram valores de sensibilidade elevados (acima de 90%), valores preditivos positivos acima de 65%, valores preditivos negativos acima de 66%, entretanto, valores baixos de especificidade (menores que 32%). Portanto, sÃo bons indicadores preditivos da ocorrÃncia do diagnÃstico de enfermagem proposto. Assim, seis caracterÃsticas definidoras, conforme observado no estudo, sÃo apropriadas para compor o diagnÃstico de enfermagem DisposiÃÃo para o crescimento e desenvolvimento do lactente melhorado. / The study aimed to construct a nursing diagnosis child growth and development in the health promotion category. Study methodology, developed in three stages of validation of nursing diagnoses, as recommended by Hoskins (1989): The concept analysis, expert validation and clinical validation. To concept analysis was used as the reference model concept analysis proposed by Rodgers (2000) and integrative literature proposed by Mendes, Silveira and GalvÃo (2008). For selection of productions, were searched five databases: Scopus, Pubmed, Cinahl, Lilacs and Cochrane with descriptors: growth and development, infant, preschool and their synonyms in English and Spanish. The concept analysis was supported by 83 studies. Regarding the concepts of growth and development phenomena, there is still much controversy regarding the use of them in order that literature brings phenomena dissociated or aggregated. The growth covers physiological aspects related to changes in size and shape, referring to body measurements. Development is defined as a broad and complex phenomenon, integrating areas: mental, cognitive, behavioral, perceptual, motor, physical. The literature has contributed to the development of fifteen defining characteristics in distributed domains: six in the physical, cognitive and six in three in psychosocial. The validation step with experts understood the appreciation of the instrument consists of two parts: 1st) characterization of specialists and 2nd) diagnostic proposal: title, setting, area 13, defining characteristics with their conceptual definitions and operational (empirical references) by 22 experts in area of child health, predominantly female (94.4%), doctors (55.6%), concentrated in the Northeast (61.1%), which exercised its activities in the past year as teachers in educational institutions (HEI) (83.3%). The time specialist training was on average 13.1 years ( 8.5). As for the structure of diagnosis, most of them pointed out that the title referred to improved child development (61.1%) as most appropriate for the nursing diagnosis under construction. All experts agreed that the diagnosis should be included in the proposed area 13 growth / development (100%), and class that distributes phenomena: 1 - and 2 growth - development (55.6%). Most experts chose the concept 1 (55.6%). Part of experts suggested adding the instrument of some peculiarities of the infant phase regarding defining characteristics. The clinical validation was performed with 45 infants assessed during the consultation childcare in a Family Health Center. The majority were male (55.6%). Half of the infants showed age of 5 months, with mothers / guardians with an average age of 24 years. The defining characteristics obtained high sensitivity (above 90%), positive predictive values above 65%, negative predictive values above 66%, however, low levels of specificity (less than 32%). Therefore, they are good indicators predictive of the occurrence of the proposed nursing diagnosis. Thus, six defining characteristics, as noted in the study, are suitable for composing the nursing diagnosis Provision for growth and development of infants improved.

As preocupações com o corpo e movimento não são recentes na Educação Infantil. Recomendações sobre a educação corporal são reconhecidas desde as primeiras sistematizações pedagógicas, especialmente a partir da Idade Moderna. No Brasil, tais preocupações aparecem especialmente a partir do século XIX. Nos últimos quinze anos, pesquisas sobre Educação Infantil no Brasil apresentaram avanços em relação à temática. Entretanto, no cotidiano das instituições é perceptível que professores possuem dificuldades consideráveis em pensar o movimento em sua totalidade. Nessa perspectiva, o objetivo dessa pesquisa foi investigar qual a concepção de corpo e movimento que norteia as práticas pedagógicas dos professores de Educação Infantil, bem como a relação estabelecida entre tais práticas e suas vivências/experiências corporais anteriores. A metodologia, de abordagem qualitativa, privilegiou o trabalho campo por meio de entrevistas semi-estruturadas, realizadas com professores de Educação Infantil nas cidades de São Paulo/SP e Jundiaí/SP. A análise dos dados, referenciado na perspectiva teórico-metodológica da Rede de Significações, foi realizada a partir das categorias: concepção de corpo e movimento dos professores, concepção de práticas cotidianas de movimento na Educação Infantil, os espaços físicos e seus usos. Os dados analisados indicam que, os professores atuantes nas instituições de Educação Infantil investigadas, em sua maioria, reconhecem a importância do movimento e em certa medida, procuram desenvolver práticas pedagógicas que o contemplem, apesar de certas dificuldades, como: falta de um entendimento mais amplo sobre o movimento e a reprodução de práticas corporais relacionadas aos saberes oriundos da dimensão pessoal, a partir de suas próprias experiências corporais na infância. Essa constatação aponta para a necessidade de uma formação profissional que garanta subsídios para que os professores possam de fato refletir e construir suas práticas cotidianas fundamentadas em um olhar crítico sobre a criança e sua corporeidade, na perspectiva da totalidade. / Concerns about body awareness and movement are not new to Pre-school Education. Recommendations about body awareness education have been acknowledged since the first pedagogical systems were put into place, predominantly from the start of the Modern Age. In Brazil, such concerns started to become apparent particularly from the start of the XIX century, and in the past fifteen years research on Pre-school Education has presented advances in this area. However, in day-to-day school life, the considerable difficulties that teachers have in thinking about movement in its entirety can be recognized. From this perspective, the objective of this research was to investigate which idea of body awareness and movement guides the pedagogical practices of Pre-school Education teachers, as well as the relationship established between these practices and the previous body awareness experiences of such professors. The methodology, from a qualitative approach, used field work that was carried out through semi-structured interviews by Pre-school teachers in the cities of São Paulo/SP and Jundaí/SP. The data analysis, from a theoretical-methodological perspective, on the Net of Meanings, was carried out taking into consideration the following categories: teacher´s perceptions of body awareness, perceptions of everyday movement activities in Pre-school Education, physical spaces and their uses. The data analyzed indicates that the majority of teachers currently teaching pre-school education - that were investigated - recognize the importance of movement, and to a certain degree, attempt to consider this concept in the development of pedagogical practices despite coming up against certain difficulties, such as: the lack of a broader understanding of the movement and reproduction of body actions from a personal viewpoint related to their own childhood experiences of such actions. This discovery underlines the necessity of professional education that guarantees support for teachers, enabling them to reflect on and construct their daily activities based on one critical look at the child and his/her body as a whole.

Malnutrition is the outcome of many complex and interrelated factors such as lack of food security, lack of health services, sanitation, knowledge, education and care. It is considered to be a major problem worldwide as well as in South Africa, and the pre-school child is especially vulnerable to developing nutritional deficiencies and diseases. The aim of the study was to investigate the capacity of caregivers to provide nutrition-related care to pre-school-age children (3 to 5 years) in a resource-poor peri-urban community (Olievenhoutbosch) situated in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The study followed a cross-sectional research design, using a quantitative research approach with qualitative aspects to attempt to answer the research question. The questionnaire used for data collection covered aspects such as the resources for care that caregivers had, their nutrition knowledge and caring activities used as part of caring capacity. The questionnaire was administered to a sample of caregivers (50 mothers and two crèche caregivers) of pre-school-age children as key informants for this study. The study revealed that the caregivers’ caring capacities in this community highly depended on the availability and use of certain resources such as human resources (education, time and social support in terms of the availability of alternative caregivers), economic resources (having a job or any source of income) and organizational resources (e.g. child care facilities such as crèches). The mothers had limited resources such as human, economic and organizational resources that would help in childcare practices. Time was a serious constraint that could compromise the level of care provided by the two crèche caregivers. The caregivers had basic nutrition knowledge, but did not have detailed nutrition knowledge. They could mention healthy food types for the child’s optimal growth and development, but could not defend their choices by giving nutritionally sound reasons. Some misconceptions regarding the consumption of certain foods were prevalent. Caring activities in this study involved more than just the provision of food (i.e. food choices, food preparation and feeding practices), but involved other important aspects such as allowing the child time to sleep and play (and sometimes play with the child), ensuring the child’s hygiene (i.e. bathing the child, dressing the child, washing the child’s clothes, cleaning the place where the child stays, plays, eats and sleeps) and performing educational activities with the child. There is a serious need for proper nutrition education which will impart knowledge of appropriate food choices; components of a nutritious diet (healthy types of foods, drinks and snacks); functions of foods in the child’s body; hygienic food handling, preparation, and storage methods that would be translated into good care practices and contribute to the child’s optimal growth and development. / Dissertation (MConsSci)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / Consumer Science / unrestricted

In identifying the importance of early identification of hearing loss in children, very little attention has been given to how advanced FM technology may improve outcomes. Distance, noise and reverberation remain considerable challenges for individuals using hearing aids, more so in really young children. The aim of this present research was to evaluate and explore the benefits of advanced integrated FM amplification technology with pre-school hearing aided children. The research was of a longitudinal prospective design, including both quantitative and qualitative analysis of FM technology use in pre-school hearing aided participants. All participants were provided with the latest hearing aid and integrated FM amplification technology suited to their hearing loss. An initial study was conducted to validate the 'AutoConnect' feature on the FM technology provided to participants. The manufacturers of the 'AutoConnect' purport the feature removes the need for verifying FM technology 'transparency'. The results indicated the feature did work with the hearing aid and FM combinations used in this study. Three further studies were conducted. The first of these evaluated FM device use via daily diaries, datalogging and questionnaires. Five of the seven families were able to establish regular FM use in a range of environments and settings. The environments where the FM was used most frequently were the home, car, nursery, shopping and outdoors. Listening evaluation measures with FM technology demonstrated the greatest improvements were in noise and at distance. Parents rated the FM technology highly, with all parents reporting 5 out of 5 for 'easy to operate'. Significant improvements in language development were noticed for the three children whose language development was identified as 'at risk' at the start of the study. The second of the three studies qualitatively explored the views and experiences of parents and carers on their use of FM technology. Eight weekly diaries, seven completed by parents and one completed by pre-school nursery staff of one of the participants, were collected throughout the study period. Seven semi structured interviews were conducted with parents at the end of study participation. Altogether eight cases were included for analysis with seven including both diaries and interviews and one case including diary only. Thematic content analysis sought to acknowledge parents and carers as the experts and place them in the centre of knowledge generation. Six main themes were identified: access to speech, listening, communication, wellbeing, engagement/ownership and practicalities of FM use. More detailed sub-themes were generated under the main six headings. Overall the analysis highlighted the potential benefits, barriers and challenges to pre-school use of FM technology. The final study used the language environment analysis (LENA) system to compare differences in language environment with and without FM use. The findings indicated the language environment of the children in this study was comparable to their hearing peers. The acoustic environment results suggested the largest portion of children's day was spent in environments where speech was at a distance or in background noise. The thesis concludes by discussing the findings and implications of this study and highlighting areas for future research. The current study provides a unique contribution to the existing literature and together with future research can be integral to the provision of FM technology as standard for pre-school hearing aided children.

Syftet med detta examensarbete är att ta reda på hur pedagogerna ute i verksamheterna använder vardagssituationerna i tamburen för att främja barns språkutveckling. För att utreda detta syfte ställs två problemfrågor, 1. Vilka strategier har pedagogerna för att ta tillvara på samtalen tillsammans med barnen när de befinner sig i tamburen? 2. Vilken typ av samtal finns det i tamburen?   De teorierna som ligger till grund i detta examensarbete är företrädesvis Lev Vygotskijs teorier om språkutveckling, samspel och interaktioner. Det empiriska materialet till detta examensarbete är av en kvalitativ art och genomfördes genom observationer av pedagoger i rutinsituationerna i tamburen, på två olika förskolor. Analysen av det insamlade materialet visar att den språkliga och kommunikativa interaktionen mellan barn och vuxna varierar på olika förskolor. På den ena förskolan som observerades bestod interaktionen mellan vuxen och barn till stor del av korta kommandon och tillrättavisningar, medan observationerna på den andra förskolan visade mer hur pedagogerna var mer av den vägledande sorten där de använde sina egna språkkunskaper för att hjälpa barnen att förstå sin omvärld genom språkliga benämningar och meningsuppbyggnader. Studien visar att det finns en medvetenhet kring språk och språkutveckling i rutinsituationer till viss del, men att detta är något man kan fortsätta att arbeta och utveckla mer i förskolans verksamhet. / The purpose of this study is to find out how teachers out in the operations are using everyday situations in the hall to promote childrens language development. To investigate this purpose, this study will go through two issues. 1. What strategies has the pre-school teachers to take advantage of the talks with the children when they are in the hall? 2. What type of conversations can be seen in the hall?   The theory underlying this study is Lev Vygotsky's theories of language development, interplay and interactions. The empirical data for this study was conducted through observation of educators in routine situations in the hall in the preeschools, in two different preeschools. The analysis of the data collected shows that the linguistic and communicative interaction between children and adults vary at different preschools. On one of the preschools that was observed, did interaction between adults and children largely consisted of short commands and reprimands. While observations on the second preeschools showed more how educators were more indicative of the kind where they used their own language skills to help children understand their world through the linguistic terms and constructing sentences.   The study shows that there is an awareness of language and language in routine situations to some extent, but this is something you can continue to work and develop more in preschool.

The current study consisted of two experiments, both of which were comparisons of choice conditions replicated across four participants. Four typically-developing pre-school children participated in this study. Experiment 1 evaluated participants' preference for choosing consequent stimuli prior to engaging in academic tasks (pre-session choice) versus choosing consequent stimuli each time criterion for reinforcement had been met within the session (within-session choice). In Experiment 2, preference for choice-making was evaluated when outcomes for both choice and no-choice conditions were identical. For two participants, results indicated strong preference for choice-making.

Tatueringar har historiskt sett väckt fördomar hos människor i form av att tatuerade individer uppfattas besitta negativa egenskaper. Denna studie undersökte hur tatueringar på en förskollärare var relaterade till utomståendes uppfattning om dennes lämplighet att ta hand om barn. Vidare undersöktes även om likhetseffekten var en faktor i tatuerade och icke-tatuerade deltagares bedömning av yrkesutövaren. Genom en kvantitativ vinjettstudie fick 151 universitetsstudenter bedöma en förskollärares lämplighet utifrån 14 yrkesrelaterade egenskaper. Cirka hälften av deltagarna bedömde en icke-tatuerad förskollärare och den andra hälften bedömde en tatuerad förskollärare. Av deltagarna var 65 själva tatuerade och 86 icke-tatuerade. Resultatet presenterade inga signifikanta skillnader i bedömningen mellan den tatuerade förskollärarens och den icke-tatuerade förskollärarens lämplighet. Det fanns heller ingen skillnad i bedömningen utifrån om deltagaren själv hade tatueringar eller inte. Studiens resultat skiljer sig delvis från tidigare forskning och kan därav ligga till grund för vidare fördjupning i fördomar kring tatueringar inom olika yrken.

This study explores the concept of imaginative play within music therapy sessions with two pre-school children in a mainstream school. This is based on pre-existing material from my clinical work at a pre-school in 2008. My interest in the phenomenon of imaginative play that emerged within our sessions gave rise to this dissertation. I found that, within my sessions, imaginative play seemed to be particularly helpful in the development of the therapeutic relationship. Thus, the aim is to explore how moments of imaginative play emerged within sessions, how the client and therapist interacted within these moments, and how this affected the therapeutic relationship and served to address therapeutic goals. This is addressed within the main research question. In addition to this, I look at the advantages and limitations of working with imaginative play in music therapy, and how music therapists can use their skills during these moments. This is addressed within the two sub-questions. This study aims to offer valuable insight about the phenomenon of imaginative play in music therapy, with particular focus on pre-school children. The study is conducted within the qualitative research paradigm, and is exploratory in nature. It follows a case study design, where pre-existing data from sessions is analysed in detail. The data consists of three video excerpts. Two excerpts are taken from different points in one session with an individual client (D), and the third is taken from an individual session with another client (F), where I was the co-therapist. The data has been transcribed, coded, categorized and organized into themes, which highlight the use and implications of using imaginative play in music therapy sessions. Findings indicate that imaginative play in music therapy sessions can be beneficial in promoting interaction, mutual participation as well as offering the client an alternative medium through which they can express different ideas and feelings where music did not seem to do so. It also provided an enjoyable experience for both the client and therapist, allowing for a more relaxed, therapeutic atmosphere and for the therapeutic relationship to develop. / Mini Dissertation (MMus)--University of Pretoria, 2009. / gm2014 / Music / Unrestricted

Magister Chirurgiae Dentium (MChD) / In the past the dental health of children has been largely neglected, and not much attempt has been made to involve parents on the importance of caring for their children's teeth. With the result, dental problems begin in the early years of life and then become a greater problem as the children grow. The two common dental diseases which affect these children are dental decay or caries, and periodontal disease. However, the disease which poses the greatest challenge among children is dental decay, which is the primary cause of children losing their teeth. Studies have been done among children of this age to determine the extent of these diseases. The results of these studies have shown, that these dental diseases are becoming a major problem. In the second chapter the causes of both these diseases, as well as their prevention will be discussed. Pre-school children are at an age at which their lifestyle is totally dependent and controlled by their parents and the third chapter deals with the way that parents can influence the childs dental health behaviour. Chapter Four outlines a dental health programme for pre-school children, involving parents, teachers, as well as pre-school children, and Chapter Five describes a pilot project and its results. / British Council