Pre-service teachers have a large role to play in initiatives to raise children’s literacy achievement. There is growing concern about the disparity of reading abilities of children, particularly in New Zealand, prompting a greater need to examine the skills and knowledge of the adults who provide reading instruction to these children. Adults engaged in higher education are typically expected to possess strong and proficient literacy skills, yet research examining the literacy skills of the broader adult population reports adult literacy levels to be much lower than assumed. Well over a third of adults in countries including the United States of America and New Zealand do not possess basic literacy skills. There is a paucity of research identifying and addressing the literacy needs of the adult population. Further, there have been limited studies investigating the literacy abilities of adults with relatively higher levels of literacy skill (e.g., those in higher education). Such research is particularly pertinent in the education context due to the influence that teaching professionals have on future generations of readers. The research reported in this thesis investigated the reading comprehension and metalinguistic abilities of pre-service teachers, and conducted two interventions within this population. The first intervention focussed on improving the reading comprehension of individuals who presented with difficulties understanding written text relative to their peers. The second intervention provided explicit instruction in building students’ language structure knowledge within general coursework completed by a whole cohort of pre-service teachers. The findings from this thesis have implications for the provision of support for pre-service teachers with literacy needs in higher education, as well as for augmenting the skills of the broader pre-service teacher population to prepare them to deliver evidence-based reading instruction. The first study (presented in Chapter Four) assessed selected cognitive and literacy skills of a cohort of undergraduate pre-service teachers in their initial year of higher education. One-hundred and thirty-one students completed an assessment battery comprising tasks of spelling, reading comprehension, inferencing, working memory, and knowledge of language structure. Analysis of results demonstrated a wide range of abilities across each of the measures, reflecting the large variance in skill with which these individuals enter into higher education. Spelling, inferencing, and working memory were each found to make significant unique contributions to reading comprehension. Furthermore, the elements contributing towards reading comprehension were found to be highly interactive, thus demonstrating the complex interactive nature of the skills that contribute to the reading comprehension process in these individuals. In the second study (presented in Chapter Five) individuals with difficulties understanding written text were identified using the reading comprehension measure from the first study. Individuals who performed more than one standard deviation below the group mean were identified for inclusion in a reading comprehension intervention. Seventeen individuals met the criteria for inclusion in the intervention and consented to participate (referred to as the IN group). Two control groups were also identified to allow for comparisons to be made pre- and post-intervention. The first control group, referred to as the NT group (n = 6), comprised of six participants who qualified for the intervention but who opted not to participate. The second control group, referred to as the CN group (n = 83), comprised of the remaining students from the large cohort. Four different strategies designed to assist with reading comprehension were modelled and practiced with each participant in the IN group over four sessions. Each intervention session focussed on one strategy alone and the intervention was administered on an individual basis. Reading comprehension and summarising assessments were completed following every session to ascertain the effectiveness of each strategy. Results showed that the first strategy (text-to-speech) was detrimental to the participants’ reading comprehension scores, while a further strategy (highlighting and summarising) was beneficial for almost all participants. There was a significant gain in reading comprehension score by the IN group after completing the intervention. Neither the NT nor the CN group, however, made any improvement in reading comprehension over this time period. The results also demonstrated that the improvement made by the IN participants increased their mean reading comprehension score to within range of the CN group (i.e., their peers identified with typical ability at the outset of the study). A third study (presented in Chapter Six) examined the responsiveness of the intervention participants to the reading comprehension intervention at a subgroup and individual level. Four subgroups of participants were identified based on their underlying literacy profile at the outset of the intervention. The first group (n = 2) comprised individuals with poor spelling; the second (n = 4), individuals with poor listening comprehension; the third (n = 1), those with poor spelling and listening comprehension; and the fourth (n = 10), individuals who did not demonstrate poor spelling or listening comprehension. There were no differences in the responsiveness of these groups to the four different strategies. There was also no association between an individual’s literacy profile and their response to the various strategies. Furthermore, closer examination of four case studies (one from each of the four subgroups) did not demonstrate any clear relationship between the responsiveness to the four different reading comprehension strategies, and their literacy profile. Finally, the fourth study (presented in Chapter Seven) examined the responsiveness of the whole cohort (n = 121) to a teaching intervention targeting metalinguistic knowledge. Two subgroups were identified within the larger cohort based on participants’ word-level skill (determined by spelling ability): good spellers (n = 24), and poor spellers (n = 24). Two subgroups were also identified based on participants’ comprehension-level skills (determined by reading comprehension): individuals with difficulties understanding written text (n = 22), and individuals with typical reading comprehension (n = 99). The metalinguistic intervention was integrated into an existing literacy course and delivered over seven weeks. The intervention focussed on raising phoneme, morpheme, and orthotactic knowledge amongst the participants in a pre-test / post-test study design. The whole cohort demonstrated significant gains in knowledge in each of the constructs targeted, after just seven hours of teaching integrated into an existing course. Analysis of subgroups of participants demonstrated that individuals with stronger spelling skills responded more favourably to the intervention than their peers with weaker spelling skills. The between-groups differences identified in the subgroups determined by reading comprehension were not as significant as those of the spelling subgroups. Thus, the results suggest the need for differentiated teaching of metalinguistic constructs based on the underlying word-level skills of each individual to ensure that pre-service teachers acquire adequate language structure knowledge within their teacher preparation programme. The findings from this thesis refute the assumption that individuals who meet the criteria required to enter into higher education present with strong or adequate literacy skills. The pre-service teachers in the reported studies demonstrated a wide range of literacy ability. The results of this assessment identified spelling, inferencing, and working memory as significant predictors of reading comprehension. The appropriateness of the Simple View of Reading framework for this population was also investigated. Individuals who demonstrated lower reading comprehension showed significant increases in their reading comprehension scores when using a strategy that incorporated highlighting and summarising techniques. This strategy was highly effective across the whole intervention group, in spite of the vast differences in the literacy profiles of these individuals. Findings from a whole-cohort teaching intervention to raise metalinguistic knowledge provide support for the inclusion of differentiated, explicit teaching of these constructs within pre-service teaching programmes. The results reported in this thesis show that by providing targeted intervention to raise the reading comprehension and metalinguistic abilities of pre-service teachers, they become better equipped to provide effective reading instruction for children, and address the disparity in children’s literacy achievement.

When interviewing school students for what constitutes a good mathematics teacher, the first characteristic usually listed is the ability to explain well. Besides well-founded content knowledge most important for classroom episodes of teacher explanations is knowledge about how to present mathematical concepts in a comprehensible way to students. This encompasses competencies in the area of verbal communication as well as the conscious use of means for illustrating and visualising mathematical ideas. We report about an analysis of explanatory processes in math lessons and about an analysis of prospective teachers\' explanatory competencies. As a result we identify improvements in teacher education at university.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD (Education) / This study chronicles a teacher training education programme. The findings emerged from the observation of argumentation skills employed by students in a physical science education classroom for pre-service high school teachers. Their task was to use the nature of arguments to solve mathematical problems of mechanics in a physics classroom. Forty first-year students were examined on how they used a dialogical argumentation instructional model (DAIM) based on Toulmin's (1958/2003) Argument Pattern (TAP), Downing's (2007) Analytical Model (DAM) and Ogunniyi's (2007a & b) Contiguity Argumentation Theory (CAT) to solve mathematical problems in physics. Thus efforts to judge the pre-service teachers' capability to solve mathematical problems in physics with respect to mechanics were compounded by the demand for the inclusion of a self-efficacy framework. According to Bandura (2006) self-efficacy is the judgment of capability. Selfefficacy plays a key role in human functioning in that it affects not only people's behaviour but other issues such as goals and aspirations, outcome expectations, affective proclivities and perception of impediments and opportunities in the social environment (Bandura, 1995, 1997 & 2006).

Doctor of Philosophy / Curriculum and Instruction Programs / Lotta Larson / All human beings possess within them implicit and explicit theories which they use repeatedly throughout their lives to explain a wide array of experiences (Tracey & Morrow, 2017). In education, teachers use their theories about reading and learning to read to inform nearly every aspect of their instruction. These belief systems develop over a lifetime and are used as filters when making instructional decisions (Cunningham & Fitzgerald, 1996; Prawat, 1992; Richardson, Anders, Tidwell, & Lloyd, 1991; Smith, 2004). Understanding and identifying these theoretical perspectives empowers educators to make informed instructional decisions in the classroom while also clarifying and defining their roles as teachers. While numerous studies have documented the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices, there appeared to be limited research that related preservice teachers’ beliefs and practices to their personally held theoretical perspectives. This study explored pre-service teachers’ beliefs and practices and how they related to their theoretical orientations to reading. The study specifically addressed the gap in the research focusing on pre-service teachers who were enrolled in a literacy methods course. Multiple data sources were gathered from interviews, observations, and artifacts and documents. These data were collected and analyzed throughout the duration of the study. The study’s findings established the relationship between pre-service teachers’ theoretical orientations to reading and their beliefs and instructional practices. The data analysis revealed that the pre-service teachers’ previous life experiences, and experiences in the literacy methods course and corresponding internship influenced their theoretical orientations to reading. Further data analysis also revealed inconsistencies related to the alignment of pre-service teachers’ beliefs and instructional practices and change of theoretical orientations.

Research has shown that the access to explicit criteria can promote student learning by making expectations explicit and by supporting students in identifying significant dimensions of quality in task performance. The aim of the study was to investigate how explicit criteria can support pre-service teachers' understanding of relational competence. The research design was an intervention study. Digital video was used as a tool for pre-service teachers to analyze interaction in simulated situations focusing on the relationship between teacher and students. Sources of data used were 1) pre-service teachers’ written analyzes before and after the access to explicit criteria, and 2) transcripts from focus-group interviews, concentrating on pre-service teachers’ perceptions of how the access to criteria affected their understanding of relational competence. The findings indicate that the access to explicit criteria positively affected pre-service teachers’ capacity to discern significant dimensions of relational competence, as well as their understanding of how trustful relationships between teachers and students can be created and maintained. All pre-service teachers perceived that the access to explicit criteria had helped them to gain a deeper understanding of relational competence and how relational competence can be observed and analyzed in interaction. A conclusion that can be drawn from the study is that the pre-service teachers, through access to criteria, developed new interpretative tools to communicate about relationships and teachers’ relational competence.

abstract: Since the field of Physical Education carries a broader role of physical activity promotion, it is important for Physical Educators to take leadership roles in Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs (CSPAP) in schools. Hence, it has been emphasized that Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) programs may need to prepare PETE majors adequately to promote physical activity beyond quality Physical Education programs in schools. The purpose of this study was to explore the current extent of CSPAP preparation in PETE programs (e.g., curricula and practices). The first phase of this study comprised a nationwide survey study on PETE programs’ curriculum and experiences for CSPAP implementation. A total of 144 programs completed the online survey about curriculum and learning experiences for the CSPAP components. Descriptive statistics, frequency analysis, chi-square statistics, and analysis of variance were used to analyze data. Findings indicated that 107 of 144 PETE programs (74.3%) had no learning experiences for CSPAP. The prevalent type of learning experiences was incorporating CSPAP components in the existing courses. Field experiences were not frequently used for CSPAP preparation. PETE personnel expressed the utility of field experiences as an ideal CSPAP learning experience. The second phase of this study addressed PETE majors’ perceptions and learning experiences related to CSPAP in PETE programs. Fourteen PETE students from six programs participated in this study and shared their experiences in PETE programs. Data were collected through a short survey, one formal interview, field images, document gathering, and a follow-up survey. Descriptive statistics, constant comparison, and analytic induction techniques were used to analyze the data. Evidence from interviews, photos, and documents revealed three common themes: a) introducing CSPAP through courses, (b) lacking programmatic experiences in CSPAP implementation (i.e., practice doing it), and (c) interpersonal skills (e.g., communication or cooperation) as a key for CSPAP but limited preparation. Participants’ perception of the role of Physical Educators as physical activity directors evolved during their training. Expanding existing courses for CSPAP preparation would be a feasible way to introduce CSPAP framework. Additional efforts to include hands-on learning experiences for all CSPAP components in PETE programs should be made. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Curriculum and Instruction 2016

O Processo de Reflexão Orientada apresenta-se como uma nova proposta formativa, a qual pode contribuir para a formação inicial professores. Nesse processo, o futuro professor, mediado por um professor mais experiente, tem a oportunidade de elaborar e avaliar suas ideias sobre o ensino e a aprendizagem, suas metodologias e suas práticas de ensino, podendo clarificar e confrontar suas teorias pessoais. Neste sentido, este trabalho investigou as contribuições do PRO na atuação pedagógica de licenciandos em Química, visando um ensino por investigação e para a promoção da alfabetização científica no Ensino Médio. Para isso, mediados pela pesquisadora, os três licenciandos participantes da pesquisa elaboraram uma sequência de aulas e a desenvolveram em sala de aula, refletindo sobre suas concepções e práticas durante todo o processo envolvido. Diversas propostas de uma mesma sequência de aulas, sobre um mesmo conteúdo químico, foram elaborados pelos licenciandos, de forma a contemplar uma sequência investigativa e para promoção da AC. A última proposta foi aplicada em sala de aula. Os licenciandos avaliaram e refletiram sobre a sua prática em sala de aula e sobre os planos desenvolvidos, utilizando referenciais teóricos sobre ensino por investigação, AC e exigência cognitiva das questões. Para compreender a evolução dos licenciandos durante o PRO, a pesquisadora analisou os níveis investigativos dos elementos pedagógicos presentes nos planos elaborados e nas aulas ministradas por eles; o nível de AC dos planos e das aulas ministradas, bem como, o nível cognitivo das questões propostas nos planos e nas aulas. O processo reflexivo sobre a prática dos licenciandos é evidenciado por meio de categorias de análise e exemplificadas por trechos das transcrições dos encontros reflexivos realizados entre eles e a pesquisadora. As contribuições do grupo durante o processo também foram avaliadas. Os resultados mostram que os planos desenvolvidos pelos três licenciandos apresentaram evoluções na maioria dos tópicos avaliados, o que pode ser justificado pelas reflexões proporcionadas pelos encontros individuais e em grupo. No entanto, algumas dificuldades foram evidenciadas quanto a proposição da questão problema e de materiais para o levantamento das ideias prévias dos estudantes. A análise das aulas evidencia algumas dificuldades vivenciadas pelos licenciandos durante suas regências, como a sustentação da questão problema, bem como, das interações dialógicas. As reflexões realizadas entre a pesquisadora e os licenciandos, durante os encontros individuais, evidenciam momentos relevantes para a formação inicial, visto que os futuros professores expunham suas concepções, anseios e dilemas. Os encontros reflexivos em grupo também evidenciam contribuições, o que possibilitou ao grupo socializar, confrontar e compartilhar suas ideias e experiências. Esta pesquisa também mostra a importância do papel do mediador, já que a confiança dos licenciandos pela pesquisadora parece ter contribuído para o comprometimento deles durante o processo. Assim, o PRO vivenciado pelos licenciandos parece ter contribuído para eles desenvolverem uma postura crítica com relação à prática docente. Ao elaborar os planejamentos e avaliar suas ações, baseados em referenciais teóricos, puderam construir novas ideias sobre o processo de ensino e de aprendizagem em Química. / The Reflection-Oriented Process is a new educational trainning proposal that may contribute to pre-service teachers trainning. In the process, the future teacher, mediated by a more experienced teacher, has the opportunity to develop and evaluate their ideas about teaching and learning methodologies and their teaching practices, may clarify and confront their personal theories. Thus, this study investigated the contributions of PRO in pedagogical proceeding on pre-service teachers chemistry, aiming investigative approach and the promotion of scientific literacy (SL) in high school. For this, mediated by the researcher, the three pre-service teachers developed lessons\' sequence and teaching in class, reflecting on their conceptions and practices throughout the process involved. Several proposals of a same sequence, by the same chemical content, were developed by future teachers in order to contemplate a investigative approach and the promotion of SL sequence. The last proposal was developed in the classroom. The pre-service teachers evaluated and reflected on their practice in the classroom and on the plans developed by using theoretical frameworks for investigative teaching approach, SL and cognitive demand of the questions. To understand the pre-service teachers evolution in PRO, the researcher analyzed the investigative levels of pedagogial elements present in elaborate plans and classes taught by them; SC level presentes on plans and classes, as well as the cognitive level of the questions proposed in the plans and in class. The reflective process on the practice of pre-service teachers is evidenced by categories analysis and exemplified by excerpts from transcripts of reflective meetings held between them and the researcher. The group\'s contributions during the process were also investigated. The results show that the plans developed by the three future teachers showed gains in most analyzed topics, which can be justified by reflections provided by individual and group meetings. However, some difficulties were highlighted as the proposition of the question problem and materials to identify the previous ideas of students. Analysis of classes shows some difficulties experienced by future teachers during their regencies, such as support problem concerned and, of dialogic interaction. The discussions held between the researcher and the pre-service teachers during the individual meeting, evidence relevant times for pre-service training, as future teachers expounded their views, concerns and dilemmas. Reflective group meetings also show contributions, which enabled the group to socialize, compare and share their ideas and experiences. This research also shows the importance of the mediator\'s role, since the pre-service teachers reliability by the researcher seems to have contributed to their commitment throughout the process. Thus, the PRO experienced by pre-service teachers seems to have assisted them to develop a critical position relative to teaching practice. Propose plans and evaluate critically their actions based on theoretical frameworks, it seems to cotributed to build new ideas about teaching and learning in chemistry.

There are no studies which focus on the instructional practices employed in the teaching of children's poetry at the university level. This project aimed to describe the instructional practices utilized in the teaching of children's poetry at universities across the United States. Limited to the practices of the university professors and adjunct instructors who were members of the Children's Literature Assembly (CLA) of the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) at the time of this study, this investigation attempted to ascertain the general perceptions of poetry held by these university professors and adjunct instructors, their in-class instructional practices, and the types of poetry assignments given. Additionally, this study revealed both the poets typically highlighted and the goals held by professors and instructors in courses of children's literature, English, language arts, library science, and reading education. A mixed-methods design provided the framework for the descriptive data gleaned from the Poetry Use Survey. Quantitative data analysis yielded descriptive statistical data (means, standard deviations, ranges, percentages). Qualitative data analysis (manual and computer-assisted techniques) yielded categories and frequencies of response. Major findings included respondents': (a) belief that the teaching of poetry was important, (b) general disagreement for single, "correct" interpretations of poetry and general agreement in support of multiple interpretations, (c) general disagreement whether current curricular demands have prevented or impaired their teaching of poetry, (e) high frequency of reading poetry out loud in class, (f) emphasis on inclusion of award-winning poets in assignments, (g) instructional emphasis on variety and breadth in the selection of poets highlighted in a particular course, (h) goals for inclusion of poetry centered on pedagogical issues (e.g., frequent use, appreciation of craft; writing models; thematic uses) in language arts and across content areas.

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