En France, les sociétés des derniers chasseurs-cueilleurs du Mésolithique ont principalement été étudiées par le biais de leurs productions lithiques, et essentiellement de leurs armatures. Le travail des matières osseuses n’a traditionnellement été évoqué que pour en signaler la pauvreté apparente, en réalité surtout fondée sur un déficit d’études. Ce présent travail de recherche a pour but de combler cette lacune de connaissances. Il s’inscrit dans le contexte actuel de diversification des types d’approches et des problématiques portant sur le Mésolithique. Il s’agit de proposer une première caractérisation du travail des matières osseuses, pour tenter d’affiner notre définition de la période, tant d’un point de vue chrono-culturel que d’un point de vue palethnologique.Ce travail de recherche a préalablement nécessité la réalisation d’un inventaire de la documentation archéologique disponible à l’échelle nationale. Il a ensuite été mené à bien par l’étude technique et économique de séries provenant d’une sélection de 21 sites du sud et de l’est de la France, répartis entre les Pyrénées, les Causses, les Alpes et le Jura.Ce travail a mis en évidence le fait que le travail des matières osseuses au Mésolithique a constitué un système fondé sur une exploitation bien différenciée de l’os, du bois de cerf et de la dent. Chacune de ces grandes catégories de matière première a été associée à un ou deux schéma(s) de transformation particulier(s) et aux productions qui en découlent. Il a également mis en évidence une forte homogénéité du travail des matières osseuses, tant d’un point de vue chronologique que géographique. Ces résultats ont permis de révéler des rythmes d’évolution différents entre productions lithiques et productions osseuses, ainsi qu’une individualisation chronologique du travail des matières osseuses au Mésolithique. Quelques apports préliminaires d’ordre palethnologique ont pu être proposés, notamment en terme d’exploitation de leurs milieux naturels par les populations mésolithiques. / In France, the last hunter-gatherers of the Mesolithic have mainly been investigated from the perspective of their lithic industry, and especially, through studies devoted to arrowheads. As a result of the apparent scarcity of osseous remains, the work of osseous materials was believed to be at best a marginal activity. The first contribution of this work is to show that this generally admitted idea is in fact the result of a lack of studies. Consequently, its aim is to fill this gap by proposing a first characterization of the work of osseous materials and to assess to what extent it refines our perception of this period from a chrono-cultural, but also from a palethnological perspective. This work participates to the current diversification of approaches and questionings concerning the Mesolithic period.This research required making an inventory of the available archaeological data at a national level. Then, a technical and economic study of a selection of 21 sites of Southern and Eastern France (Pyrenees, Causses, Alps and Jura) was performed.During the Mesolithic, the work of osseous materials was based on a differential exploitation of each raw material: bone, antler and tooth. Each material was worked following one or two transformation scheme(s). This study also shows that the exploitation and working techniques of osseous materials remained highly unified throughout the considered chronological and geographical frames. These results bring to light, on the one hand, that lithic and osseous productions followed different evolution rhythms and, on the other hand, that the modalities of the work of osseous materials are specific to the Mesolithic. Finally, preliminary palethnological results contribute to a wider issue i.e., the question of the exploitation of their environment by the Mesolithic populations.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2014. / The Middle Stone Age rock shelter site Sibudu contains abundant evidence of pyrotechnology (the controlled use of fire) such as combustion features, ashy layers and lenses and burned bone. I study the use, reuse and discard of fire at Sibudu and the layers Brown/Grey mix and Brown under Yellow Ash 2(i) from the post-Howiesons Poort (post-HP) industry (c. 58 000 years BP) and the layers Pinkish Grey Sand and Pinkish Grey Sand 2 from the Howiesons Poort (HP) techno-tradition (c. 65 000 years BP) are selected for detailed studies. I describe properties of selected combustion features, such as size, form, number of hearth strata, contents (bone, charcoal and stone) and pH values. The post-HP combustion features generally contain a higher proportion of charcoal and are more acidic than the HP combustion features, suggesting post-depositional differences. Twenty actualistic experiments including 39 experimental fires constitute the largest component and contribution of this thesis. The experiments were conducted in two cycles; the first cycle of experiments burned (in different fires) one each of the wood taxa Casuarina equisetifolia, Dichrostachys cinerea, Eucalyptus globulus or Acacia erioloba and the second cycle of experiments burned Dichrostachys cinerea exclusively. Variables such as wood mass, topsoil horizon and number of sequential fires were carefully controlled. The surface and subsurface temperatures of the experimental fires were recorded. The experimental hearths were excavated using similar techniques as those used at Sibudu. Surface temperatures vary greatly even under similar environmental conditions, but subsurface temperatures are more predictable. Five kilograms of wood is sufficient to produce high temperatures for several hours, and slowly adding logs to a fire ensures even temperatures. Sibudu's hearths have a basal black layer with charcoal, but experimental fires do not. Instead they produced 2 – 5 distinct strata, and long-burning fires produced more strata than short-burning ones. Experimental ash dumps lack strata. Areal extent of a hearth is dependent on the wood mass burned, but its depth is dependent on the wood taxon burned. I present spatial analysis of charcoal, bone and knapped stone from the selected Sibudu layers using Kernel density estimation. Higher densities of bone, charcoal and stone are present in the post-HP layers than in the HP. Specialist studies of wood taxa, micromorphology and organic petrology are also included. No specific firewood taxa were preferred, but herbaceous plants were burned at 65 000 years ago, suggesting short fires. This thesis provides a foundation for future research on fire-related behaviour at Sibudu and other Middle Stone Age sites. For example, higher acidity was recorded in the post-HP than in the HP combustion features; this could be caused by different diagenesis and geoarchaeological studies need to be conducted to resolve the issue.. In addition, all the primarily deposited archaeological combustion features in this study were underlain by a basal black layer rich in charcoal, but such layers did not develop in the experimental combustion features and I cannot explain this difference. Thus it is necessary to conduct more studies of the variables affecting the formation and preservation of combustion features. One aspect to study experimentally is the range of attributes controlling surface temperatures of campfires. Amongst the experiments described here, experimental fires burning five kg wood produced maximum surface temperatures in the range of 132 - 848°C, which demonstrates that surface temperatures are unpredictable. The implication is that producing particular temperatures of a fire is not straight-forward and that prehistoric fire users needed planning abilities and a thorough knowledge of pyrotechnology. Both these skills require mental abilities like those of modern people and they also require a sophisticated understanding of environmental conditions.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2016. / ABSTRACT Sibudu rock shelter was occupied by hunter gatherer groups of modern humans during the Middle Stone Age between 77 and 38 000 (38 ka) years ago. Sibudu is in the summer rainfall region and is situated about 15 km inland of the eastern coast of South Africa. The site includes technological industries such as Still Bay and Howiesons Poort that are distinguished by specific stone tool types. Woody taxa identified from archaeological charcoal in this site, indicate changes in vegetation and wood use. Archaeological charcoal specimens, specifically from hearths on three putative occupation floors, were analysed for behavioural information about wood selection and use. Two of the stratigraphic layers, BYA2 (i) and SPCA, are approximately 58 ka old and the MOD layer is approximately 49 ka old. All three layers contain tools from the post-Howiesons Poort industry. Identifications of woody taxa were made by means of a comparative charcoal reference collection and the InsideWood database. Charcoal was studied under stereo and reflective light microscopes. Woody taxa identified confirmed that the coldest, driest phase of occupation was at approximately 58 ka. Bushveld woods, including five Acacia types, have been identified in charcoal from MOD layer, ~49 ka. The vegetation mosaic was different from today’s coastal forest and savanna near Sibudu. The availability of natural wood around Sibudu, visible in the type of wood burnt in hearths, has changed since 58 ka and 49 ka for either climatic or anthropogenic reasons or for a combination of these. In all three layers, the wood bundles include tinder, fuel, and a selection of woody plants that today are known to have medicinal bark, leaves and wood. People may have selected wood for burning properties (for example, temperature, light and coal production) and for medicine. Woods suitable for making firesticks for starting fires by means of friction are present. Wood from Spirostachys africana (tambotie) occurs in one hearth in each of the three layers. Since Spirostachys africana is normally avoided in cooking fires as it is poisonous, this suggests that the wood was selected deliberately and burnt for insecticidal smoke or other medicinal purposes. Tarchonanthus parvicapitulatus (syn. T. camphoratus) charcoal occurred in layer SPCA. This adds to the previous evidence of the use of aromatic plants at Sibudu, where sedge bedding was topped with aromatic, insecticidal Cryptocarya woodii (river-quince) leaves (Wadley et al. 2011. Science 334 (6061): 1388-1391). Wood use is different between hearths and surrounding sediments and between occupations dating 58 ka and 49 ka. Keywords: phytomedicine, Sibudu, Spirostachys africana, Acacia, charcoal analysis, wood anatomy / LG2017

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. October 2015. / A call for a more systematic approach to site protection and management has long been made for rock art conservation in South Africa. This study heeds the call as it aims to develop a conservation model for rock art in South Africa from a management perspective. Site protection and management principles that have been successfully implemented in Australia and America have seldom been implemented in South Africa. Conservation researchers argue that it is relatively easy to identify theoretically the requirements of a management or conservation policy; however, developing a conservation model and policy that will successfully maximize the conservation opportunities is an abstract task. As such building a conservation model founded on abstract concepts on conservation would not lead to an improved conservation practice and would be unsuccessful. In world heritage systems there are, however, essential agreed upon principles on assessment, criteria, guidelines, standards, and implementation. Such systems therefore, underscore that the problem is perhaps not with theory but with conservation practice in South Africa. This study presents new and original research on rock art conservation interventions assessment on rock art. As a point of departure this study investigated the history of conservation practice in South Africa using a conservation assessment model developed by Kathleen Dardes (1998) for museums in America. The history on conservation practice has identified inconsistencies in the management of conservation treatments and approaches to interventions. Conservation interventions are still based on inductive, emergency salvage approaches with no thorough understanding of either site or environmental conditions in South Africa. There is little attention paid to indigenous sensitivities with conservation practices and there are no standard systems of monitoring and reporting. While far more data is required to provide definitive conservation strategies, this study proposes a three step conservation model for rock art in South Africa from a management perspective. This model focuses on initiating, planning and controlling conservation projects.

No description available.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Johannesburg, 2016. / This study is within the context of the Howiesons Poort Industry of the Middle Stone Age. This is a dynamic period of increasing behavioural and material complexity. In the lithic assembles, this can be seen in a strong bias towards the selection of high-quality fine-grained rocks. This has often been interpreted as evidence for long distance travel, reciprocal exchange, or even increased mobility. This study aims to determine what influence the mechanical properties of rock types exerted on the Middle Stone Age assemblages at Sibudu. This requires a consideration of the distribution of rock types across the landscape surrounding Sibudu Cave. The study was limited to hornfels and dolerite as these rock types dominate the Sibudu assemblage, and quartz and quartzite that were sometimes used at the site are exceedingly difficult to collect in large enough sample sizes to conduct experiments. It was important to carry out tests on the mechanical properties of hornfels and dolerite and to characterise them. Hardness, roughness, elasticity and brittleness dictate the ease of knapping as well as the durability of flaked tools and these rock properties can be measured by the mechanical tests described here. To understand how these properties affect the assemblage in practice, dolerite and hornfels flakes were produced and used experimentally for cutting and scraping leather. The edge damage produced was compared. Finally, preliminary analysis was undertaken of square C4, layer PGS, which forms part of the oldest Howiesons Poort layer at Sibudu. The information and insights gained from the mechanical tests and experimental work were used to interpret the role of mechanical properties for the archaeological sample of PGS. The results show that all rocks used at Sibudu are local, and do not support any models of long distance travel/trade, reciprocal exchange, or models of increased mobility. Dolerite and hornfels form the bulk of the assemblage at all times (except briefly in the post-Howiesons Poort), and there is a bias towards the selection of fine-grained rocks during the Howiesons Poort. Dolerite can be characterised as hard, tough, elastic, and rough, while hornfels is hard, brittle, and fine-grained. These properties affect knapping and the qualities of a tool’s edge. The properties of hornfels allow for knapping accuracy and predictability, and it is better suited to blade production and cutting. However, tool edges are not robust. Dolerite is not as easy to knap, but produces tools with a robust edge that are particularly suited to scraping. Each rock type appears to have fulfilled a different function at Sibudu. Most rock studies geochemically source rocks, establish models of rock procurement or show trends in rock selection for artefact classes. Mechanical studies of rocks have typically formed part of heat treatment debates (Brown et al 2009; Domanski & Webb 1992, 1994; Webb & Domanski 2008). Through the combined approach of mechanical testing, experimental knapping and tool use, and lithic analysis, this research provides a context for possible rock procurement choices at a time in the past when many African sites reveal a changing pattern of rock selection. / LG2017

This study examines the history by which the local communities became separated from their ancestral heritage at Chongoni World Heritage Site in Malawi and then uses this knowledge to improve the management and conservation of rock art sites in the area. It demonstrates how various forces of the distant and immediate past came into play and systematically disconnected the Chewa communities around Chongoni area from their ancestral rock shelters once used by scores of generations for many important functions such as rock painting, rainmaking ceremonies and boys and girls initiation rituals. It shows that the separation of these communities from their heritage happened gradually in various episodes spread over the past 150 years. The key factors that directly or indirectly led to the separation included the early conquest of the Chewa communities by the Ngoni and other groups; conflicts with early Christian missionaries; heavy handed policies of the British colonial government; social and political failures of the post-independent state; the rise of multiparty politics, governance and human freedoms and others. Using local evidence, I build a case for each of the mentioned factors and shows how this community is still in danger of not only being completely separated from their ancestral heritage but also losing the remaining strands of their unique traditions. The study concludes by making recommendations for instituting participatory approaches in the management and conservation of Chongoni World Heritage Site.

MSc., Faculty of Science, University of Witwatersrand, 2011 / Studies of San rock art in southern Africa have appealed to researchers for specificities of individual rock art sites in order to counter the prevailing practice of conceptualising San rock art as a homogenous entity. This research attempts to analyse social interaction through looking at diverse ethnographies and how such ethnographies can reveal information regarding one rock art site. Individual rock art sites like Xoro Gwai can start to unravel the nuanced, diverse and complex nature of San religious beliefs and rites and how these beliefs were affected or influenced by social contact with other social formations.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 2015. / Heritage management has been a growing phenomenon throughout the world. This growth is due to the increasing necessity to protect the world’s cultural heritage. Heritage management has been closely linked with community participation as well as laws and policies that protect the heritage. Furthermore, site use is also of importance to discover how the heritage is presented, protected and managed. These are the three components that will be the focus of my research. The implementation of heritage management requires a management plan that clearly stipulates and outlines specific procedures to be followed. An ideal management plan includes the components mentioned above, in that it states the stakeholders involved, how the heritage place will be preserved and how the legislation will be used to ensure the protection of such places. This research focuses on rock art sites as the cultural heritage places and the importance of protecting them, with specific focus on rock art sites from South Africa and Mexico. The objective of this study is to analyse the different management plans from sites chosen from the two countries, compare the management plans and recommend a best practice for management plans constructed for rock art sites. The hope is that the recommendations will contribute to managing rock art sites as well as to the International Collaboration formed between South Africa and Mexico.

A Masters Dissertation submitted to the faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand in fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters` degree. Johannesburg 2016. / The Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels (c. 100 – 72 ka) (thousand years) at Blombos Cave, South Africa, contain buried remnants of human existence and their activities (these include ochre-stained shell beads, processed ochre pieces, bone tools, stone tools, and ochre processing toolkits). A preliminary study on the occupation layers at Blombos Cave was done in order to chemically and physically characterise the sediment deposits. The interpretation of the information preserved in these sediments, as a result of human activities, was achieved by using the following characterisation techniques: FT-IR, ICP-OES/MS, CHNS analysis as well as pH and EC measurements. Fluctuations in the bio-essential trace elements (K, P, Mg, Ca, S, Fe, Al, Cr, Na, Cu and C) and in the markers of in situ burning (P, K, C, Ca and Mg) through the MSA levels suggested a non-contiunous anthropogenic occupation of the cave. Further, the dark coloured layers were indicative of periods when heavy human activities, such as fire use, were encoutered. These layers were characterised by high levels of P, K, C, Ca and Mg, also elevated pH and EC levels were observed. The calcite origin for these sediment deposits was confirmed to be pyrogenic. The layers found to contain large bone, ochre and shell densities (with no evidence of fire use) had high levels of Fe, P high Ca and low EC. The calcite origin for these sediment deposits was geogenic. Biogenic calcite was only observed in the more recent CA and CC layers. Substantial amounts of ochre assemblages were recovered from the MSA levels at Blombos Cave. Among these was an ochre processing toolkit recovered from the CP layer (c.100 ka). Ochre is abundant in African archaeological sites after 165 ka and is likely to have played a symbolic role in the lives of prehistoric people. It contains an iron-oxide mineral as well as accessory minerals. When mixed with a binder (such as fat or water) ochre can be used as a pigment. A large number of fragmented bone remains were found in the M1 and M2 levels. It is suggested that the majority of the fragmentation occurred while the bones were in a fresh state; implying marrow extraction by the site occupants. The exploitation of bone marrow was crucial in order to extract the fat and use it as a binder during the pigment production. Some of the broken and marrow-extracted bones were heated and used as fuel during seasons when wood was scarce while the other bones were deliberately engraved for symbolic intent. The characterisation of the ochre processing toolkit was achieved by mineralogical analysis and elemental fingerprinting. FT-IR analysis revealed that the general matrix of the ochre samples comprised of hematite (Fe2O3) or goethite (α-FeO(OH)) as the main chromophores and clay minerals (such as kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), muscovite [(KF)2(Al2O3)3(SiO2)6(H2O)] and illite [K(Al4Si2O9(OH)3)]), calcite (CaCO3) and quartz (SiO2) as the main accessory minerals. PXRD analysis confirmed Fe2O3, Al2Si2O5 (OH)4, [K(Al4Si2O9(OH)3)] and SiO2 to be the predominant mineral phases in the ochre, implying this specific type of ochre was preferred during the production of the pigment. Fe2O3 contributed the red hue and the aluminosilicates their clayey properties making them good extenders of the pigment. Multivariate statistics and Fe ratios made it possible to identify elements important for differentiating the ochre recovered from the CP layer. Analysis of variance (ANOVA one-way) showed a statistically significant difference between the ochre residues in terms of trace elemental profiling. The variance suggested different geological origins for the ochre. FT-IR was used as a screening technique for any organic residues associated with the toolkit and GC-MS was used to identify the preserved organic residues. These were mostly lipids and terpenes. The identified bio-molecular markers; stearic acid and dehydroabietic acid were exploited to give insight on the origin of the residues. Stearic acid suggested the use of animal fat while dehydroabietic acid implied the use of a resin (potentially as a binder in the pigment). The characterisation investigations revealed that the prehistoric populations at Blombos Cave specifically sourced hematite and aluminosilicate- containing ochre pigments in order to fulfil their social and cultural demands. The MSA site occupants’ chemical understanding of these materials suggested they were technologically advanced. Keywords: Blombos Cave, MSA levels, ochre, mineralogical analysis and elemental fingerprinting. / LG2017