A hidrólise enzimática de celulose representa, em relação à hidrólise ácida, uma alternativa limpa para produção de etanol. No entanto, existem duas dificuldades: o alto custo das enzimas e recalcitrância das regiões cristalinas da celulose. Para o primeiro problema, propomos a imobilização de celulase, um complexo enzimático que sinergicamente promove a degradação da celulose em glicose e celobiose, sobre wafers de silício. Apesar da atividade enzimática de celulase adsorvida ser em geral menor que a de celulase livre, a imobilização de celulases provou ser vantajosa, pois permite até seis reusos, mantendo um nível de atividade apenas 20% inferior ao original. Quanto à questão da recalcitrância das regiões cristalinas da celulose, utilizamos diferentes pré-tratamentos de celulose, a fim de reduzir a sua cristalinidade e o seu grau de polimerização, além de também modificar a estrutura supramolecular da celulose e a quantidade de poros que esta apresenta, avaliando todos estes parâmetros quantitativamente frente à atividade enzimática livre e imobilizada. A sacarificação enzimática de celulase livre e imobilizada foi determinada na hidrólise de celulose microcristalina (Avicel), e dois tipos de celulose nativa, algodão e eucalipto. Avicel foi pré-tratada a partir da (i) dissolução e degradação em ácido fosfórico, (ii) dissolução em acetato de 1-etil-3-metil-imidazólio (EMIMAc), e (iii) da hidrólise por endoglucanases adsorvidas, uma enzima do complexo enzimático celulase. Celulose de eucalipto e algodão foram mercerizadas a fim de se retirar contaminantes. A hidrólise com celulase livre levou a taxas de conversão de celulose à glicose que não apresentaram correlação com o índice de cristalinidade, nem com o grau de polimerização, mas apresentaram correlação direta com a capacidade de absorção de água, também chamada de constante de capilaridade. As taxas de conversão obtidas na presença de celulase adsorvida apresentaram correlação inversa com a constante de capilaridade, evidenciando que o mecanismo de hidrólise neste caso é fortemente dependente da camada de hidratação da celulose. / Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose represents, in relation to acid hydrolysis, a clean alternative for production of ethanol. However, there are two difficulties: the high cost of enzymes and the recalcitrance of the crystalline regions of cellulose. For the first problem, we propose the immobilization of cellulase, an enzymatic complex which synergistically promotes the degradation of cellulose to glucose and cellobiose, onto Si wafers. Although the enzymatic activity of immobilized cellulase is generally lower than that of free cellulase, immobilization has proven to be advantageous since it allows up to six reuses maintaining the activity level at 80% of the original one. Concerning the recalcitrance of the crystalline regions of cellulose, we used different cellulose pretreatments in order to reduce its crystallinity and degree of polymerization, and to modify the cellulose supramolecular structure along with the amount of pores. All these parameters were quantitatively correlated with the activity of free and immobilized cellulase. The enzymatic activity of free and immobilized enzyme was determined by the hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel), and two types of native cellulose, cotton and eucalyptus. Avicel was pretreated in three different ways: (i) dissolution and degradation in phosphoric acid, (ii) dissolution in 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium acetate (EMIMAc), and (iii) hydrolysis by immobilized endoglucanase, an enzyme that is part of the cellulase enzyme complex. Eucalyptus and cotton pulp were mercerized in order to remove contaminants. Hydrolysis with free cellulase yielded cellulose to glucose conversions that were neither correlated with the crystallinity index nor with the degree of polymerization, but were directly correlated with the cellulose ability to absorb water (capillary constant). The conversion rates obtained in the presence of immobilized cellulase correlated inversely with the capillary constant values, indicating that hydrolysis mechanism in this case is strongly dependent on the hydration layer of cellulose

A hidrólise enzimática de celulose representa, em relação à hidrólise ácida, uma alternativa limpa para produção de etanol. No entanto, existem duas dificuldades: o alto custo das enzimas e recalcitrância das regiões cristalinas da celulose. Para o primeiro problema, propomos a imobilização de celulase, um complexo enzimático que sinergicamente promove a degradação da celulose em glicose e celobiose, sobre wafers de silício. Apesar da atividade enzimática de celulase adsorvida ser em geral menor que a de celulase livre, a imobilização de celulases provou ser vantajosa, pois permite até seis reusos, mantendo um nível de atividade apenas 20% inferior ao original. Quanto à questão da recalcitrância das regiões cristalinas da celulose, utilizamos diferentes pré-tratamentos de celulose, a fim de reduzir a sua cristalinidade e o seu grau de polimerização, além de também modificar a estrutura supramolecular da celulose e a quantidade de poros que esta apresenta, avaliando todos estes parâmetros quantitativamente frente à atividade enzimática livre e imobilizada. A sacarificação enzimática de celulase livre e imobilizada foi determinada na hidrólise de celulose microcristalina (Avicel), e dois tipos de celulose nativa, algodão e eucalipto. Avicel foi pré-tratada a partir da (i) dissolução e degradação em ácido fosfórico, (ii) dissolução em acetato de 1-etil-3-metil-imidazólio (EMIMAc), e (iii) da hidrólise por endoglucanases adsorvidas, uma enzima do complexo enzimático celulase. Celulose de eucalipto e algodão foram mercerizadas a fim de se retirar contaminantes. A hidrólise com celulase livre levou a taxas de conversão de celulose à glicose que não apresentaram correlação com o índice de cristalinidade, nem com o grau de polimerização, mas apresentaram correlação direta com a capacidade de absorção de água, também chamada de constante de capilaridade. As taxas de conversão obtidas na presença de celulase adsorvida apresentaram correlação inversa com a constante de capilaridade, evidenciando que o mecanismo de hidrólise neste caso é fortemente dependente da camada de hidratação da celulose. / Enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose represents, in relation to acid hydrolysis, a clean alternative for production of ethanol. However, there are two difficulties: the high cost of enzymes and the recalcitrance of the crystalline regions of cellulose. For the first problem, we propose the immobilization of cellulase, an enzymatic complex which synergistically promotes the degradation of cellulose to glucose and cellobiose, onto Si wafers. Although the enzymatic activity of immobilized cellulase is generally lower than that of free cellulase, immobilization has proven to be advantageous since it allows up to six reuses maintaining the activity level at 80% of the original one. Concerning the recalcitrance of the crystalline regions of cellulose, we used different cellulose pretreatments in order to reduce its crystallinity and degree of polymerization, and to modify the cellulose supramolecular structure along with the amount of pores. All these parameters were quantitatively correlated with the activity of free and immobilized cellulase. The enzymatic activity of free and immobilized enzyme was determined by the hydrolysis of microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel), and two types of native cellulose, cotton and eucalyptus. Avicel was pretreated in three different ways: (i) dissolution and degradation in phosphoric acid, (ii) dissolution in 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium acetate (EMIMAc), and (iii) hydrolysis by immobilized endoglucanase, an enzyme that is part of the cellulase enzyme complex. Eucalyptus and cotton pulp were mercerized in order to remove contaminants. Hydrolysis with free cellulase yielded cellulose to glucose conversions that were neither correlated with the crystallinity index nor with the degree of polymerization, but were directly correlated with the cellulose ability to absorb water (capillary constant). The conversion rates obtained in the presence of immobilized cellulase correlated inversely with the capillary constant values, indicating that hydrolysis mechanism in this case is strongly dependent on the hydration layer of cellulose

Dans le futur, différentes sources d'énergies renouvelables comme les énergies de seconde génération produites à partir de déchets lignocellulosiques seront nécessaires pour palier à l'épuisement des énergies fossiles. Parmi ces énergies de seconde génération, le biohydrogène, le méthane et l'hythane produits à partir de procédés fermentaires anaérobies représentent des alternatives prometteuses. Cependant la production de biohydrogène et de méthane à partir de résidus lignocellulosiques est limitée par leurs structures récalcitrantes et une étape de prétraitement en amont des procédés fermentaires est souvent nécessaire. Ce travail a pour but d'étudier l'impact des facteurs biochimiques et structurels des résidus lignocellulosiques sur les performances de production d'hydrogène et de méthane, pour pouvoir par la suite développer des stratégies de prétaitements adaptées. Tout d'abord, sur un panel de vingt substrats lignocellulosiques, les potentiels hydrogène et méthane ont été corrélés aux paramètres biochimiques et structurels. Les résultats ont mis en évidence que le potentiel hydrogène est uniquement corrélé positivement à la teneur en sucres solubles. La production de méthane quant à elle est négativement corrélée à la teneur en lignine et, à un moindre degré, à la cristallinité de la cellulose, mais positivement à la teneur en sucres solubles, holocelluloses amorphes et protéines. Par la suite, des stratégies de prétraitements ont été établies pour améliorer la production d'hydrogène et de méthane. Le couplage prétaitements alcalins/enzymatique ainsi que les prétraitements à l'acide dilué, efficaces pour solubiliser les holocelluloses en sucres solubles ont été appliqués en amont de la production d'hydrogène. En combinant le pretraitement alcalin avec une hydrolyse enzymatique, le potentiel hydrogène des tiges de tournesol fut multiplié par quinze. En revanche, suite aux prétraitements acides, la production d'hydrogène fut inhibée à cause de la libération de sous-produits (furfural, 5-HMF et composés phénoliques) engendrant un changement d'espèces bactériennes vers des espèces non productrices d'hydrogène. Pour la production de méthane, cinq prétraitements thermo-chimiques (NaOH, H2O2, Ca(OH)2, HCl and FeCl3) efficaces pour délignifier ou solubiliser les holocelluloses ont été étudiés. Parmi ces prétraitements, la meilleure condition fut 55°C à une concentration de 4% NaOH pendant 24 h, résulant en une augmentation du potentiel méthane variant de 29 à 44 % en fonction des tiges de tournesol. Cette condition fut par la suite validée en réacteurs anaérobies continusavec une augmentation de 26.5% de la production de méthane. Un procédé à deux étages couplant la production d'hydrogène en batch suivi de la production de méthane en continu fut aussi étudié. Néanmoins, aucune différence significative en termes d'énergie produite ne fut observée entre les procédés à deux étages (H2/CH4) et à un étage (CH4). / In the future, various forms of renewable energy, such as second generation biofuels from lignocellulosic residues, will be required to replace fossil fuels. Among these, biohydrogen and methane produced through fermentative processes appear as interesting candidates. However, biohydrogen and/or methane production of lignocellulosic residues is often limited by the recalcitrant structure and a pretreatment step prior to fermentative processes is often required. Up to date, informations on lignocellulosic characteristics limiting both hydrogen and methane production are limited.Therefore, this work aims to investigate the effect of compositional and structural features of lignocellulosic residues on biohydrogen and methane performances for further developping appropriate pretreatments strategies. Firstly, a panel of twenty lignocellulosic residues was used to correlate both hydrogen and methane potentials with the compositional and structural characteristics. The results showed that hydrogen potential positively correlated with soluble carbohydrates only. Secondly, methane potential correlated negatively with lignin content and, in a lesser extent, with crystalline cellulose, but positively with the soluble carbohydrates, amorphous holocelluloses and protein contents. Pretreatments strategies were further developed to enhance both hydrogen and methane production of sunflower stalks. Dilute-acid and combined alkaline-enzymatic pretreatments, which were found efficient in solubilizing holocelluloses into soluble carbohydrates, were applied prior to biohydrogen potential tests. By combined alkaline-enzymatic pretreatment, hydrogen potential was fifteen times more than that of untreated samples. On the contrary, hydrogen production was inhibited after dilute-acid pretreatments due to the release of byproducts (furfural, 5-HMF and phenolic compounds) that led to microbial communities shift toward no hydrogen producing bacteria. Similarly, methane production, five thermo-chemical pretreatments (NaOH, H2O2, Ca(OH)2, HCl and FeCl3) found efficient in delignification or solubilization of holocelluloses, were considered. Among these pretreatments, the best conditions were 55°C with 4% NaOH for 24 h and led to an increase of 29-44 % in methane potential of sunflower stalks. This pretreatment condition was validated in one stage anaerobic mesophilic continuous digester for methane production and was found efficient to enhance from 26.5% the total energy produced compared to one stage-CH4 alone. Two-stage H2 (batch) / CH4 (continuous) process was also investigated. Nevertheless, in term of energy produced, no significant differences were observed between one-stage CH4 and two-stage H2 /CH4.

Submitted by Bruna Rodrigues (bruna92rodrigues@yahoo.com.br) on 2016-09-26T14:51:02Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DissMAF.pdf: 3997675 bytes, checksum: 3238bd54da33e9d0c201deb533005fa2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-26T18:48:09Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissMAF.pdf: 3997675 bytes, checksum: 3238bd54da33e9d0c201deb533005fa2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Marina Freitas (marinapf@ufscar.br) on 2016-09-26T18:48:18Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 DissMAF.pdf: 3997675 bytes, checksum: 3238bd54da33e9d0c201deb533005fa2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-26T18:48:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DissMAF.pdf: 3997675 bytes, checksum: 3238bd54da33e9d0c201deb533005fa2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-03-30 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Xylooligosaccharides (XOS) are short-chain polymers of xylose (2 to 7 units) which can be produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of the xylan from the lignocellulosic feedstocks. XOS have a great potential as probiotic ingredients, and when they are incorporated in diets, they can provide many health benefits. The worldwide interest in the use of lignocellulosic residues is constantly growing, and in this scenario the soybean hull arises as a potential residue of the Brazilian agroindustry. The bioconversion of these residues to value-added products requires suitable pretreatments to deconstruct/disorganize the recalcitrant lignocellulosic complex, separating its main fractions: cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In this context, this work did evaluate different biomass pretreatments aiming to produce XOS by the action of a Bacillus subtilis endoxylanase. Initially, the conditions for maximum catalytic activity of this enzyme were evaluated changing pH, buffer, and temperature. Among these parameters, 50 mM citrate buffer, pH 5.5, and 45 oC were the one that gave highest activity. The in nature soybean hull (previously chemically characterized) was hydrolyzed with soluble endoxylanase with different enzyme loads (40, 80, and 100 U/g biomass) under preestablished pH and temperature, producing around 55 mg RS/g dry biomass. This result, though little expressive, showed the viability of XOS production from soybean hull. However, this approach requires a suitable pretreatment of the lignocellulosic biomass to improve the endoxylanase accessibility to the C-5 fraction. Several pretreatments were performed in the soybean hulls, such as, enzymatic deproteinization, hydrogen peroxide/acetic acid pretreatment, and organosolv-ethanol pretreatment. For some pretreatments, reagent concentration and reaction time were evaluated, as well as, sequential pretreatment. Besides, enzymatic hydrolysis of the in nature soybean hull under microwave irradiation was also evaluated. The deproteinization of the soybean hull was not very efficient to the enzymatic hydrolysis of the remnant solid (production of 30 mg RS/dry biomass). However, this pretreatment allows the protein recovery as a high nutritional value hydrolysate. The pretreatment of the deproteinized soybean hulls with hydrogen peroxide solution (5 M, 1 h) removed 56% lignin without cellulose losses. However, this pretreatment did not contribute to an efficient action of the endoxylanase to the hemicellulose fraction (production of around 30 mg RS/g dry biomass). The organosolv-(50% v/v)ethanol pretreatment of the deproteinized soybean hulls promoted the removal of around 50% lignin, with low solubilization of hemicellulose (<17%), producing a poor substrate for the endoxylanase. The organosolv pretreatments with 50 and 70% (v/v) ethanol of the in nature soybean hull were able to solubilize around 30% hemicellulose, allowing the production of around 76 and 49 mg RS/g dry biomass, respectively, after hydrolysis with endoxylanase. Finally, the microwave action on the lignocellulosic biomass probably decreased the biomass recalcitrance, because the hydrolysis of the in nature soybean hulls catalyzed by the endoxylanase (100 IU / g of biomass) yielded approximately 100 mg of RS/g dry biomass. On the other hand, the hydrolysis performed in a reactor under conventional heating produced only 52 mg RS/g dry biomass. The results of this work did show that the combination of microwave irradiation and enzymatic hydrolysis might be a promising alternative to produce XOS. Keywords: soybean hulls; xylo-oligosaccharides; pretreatments / Xilo-oligossacarídeos (XOS) são polímeros de xilose de cadeia curta (2 a 7 unidades) que podem ser obtidos por hidrólise enzimática da xilana presente na fração de hemicelulose dos materiais lignocelulósicos. XOS possuem um grande potencial como ingredientes prebióticos, e quando incorporados na dieta, podem fornecer muitos benefícios à saúde. O interesse mundial no aproveitamento de resíduos lignocelulósicos é cada vez maior, e no cenário nacional a casca de soja se destaca como um potencial resíduo da agroindústria brasileira. Para viabilizar a bioconversão desses resíduos em produtos de interesse comercial (etanol 2G e XOS, por exemplo) são necessários pré-tratamentos, que atuam desconstituindo/desorganizando a estrutura altamente recalcitrante do complexo lignocelulósico e separando as frações principais da biomassa: celulose, hemicelulose e lignina. Neste contexto, este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar diferentes pré-tratamentos da biomassa para produzir sequencialmente XOS por ação de uma endoxilanase de Bacillus subtilis. Inicialmente as condições de máxima atividade catalítica dessa enzima foram avaliadas variando pH, tampão e temperatura. Dentre as variáveis estudadas, as que contribuíram para uma melhor atividade da endoxilanase foram tampão citrato de sódio (50mM) pH 5,5 e 45 °C. A casca de soja in natura (previamente caracterizada quimicamente) foi hidrolisada com endoxilanase solúvel com diferentes cargas enzimáticas (40, 80 e 100 U/g casca) nas condições de pH e temperatura pré-estabelecidas, produzindo em média 55 mg de AR/g biomassa seca. Esse resultado, embora pouco expressivo, demonstrou a viabilidade da produção de XOS a partir de casca de soja, requerendo, entretanto, um pré-tratamento adequado para melhorar a acessibilidade da endoxilanase à fração C-5 da biomassa. Os pré-tratamentos avaliados foram a desproteinização enzimática da casca, prétratamento com peróxido de hidrogênio e ácido acético e pré-tratamento organossolve-etanol, variando nestes, as concentrações de solventes, tempo de reação e pré-tratamentos sequenciais. Adicionalmente, realizou-se a hidrólise enzimática da casca de soja in natura em reator micro-ondas. A desproteinização da casca de soja mostrou-se ineficiente para a hidrólise da fração sólida remanescente com endoxilanase (produção de 30 mg de AR/g biomassa seca), embora esse pré-tratamento permita a recuperação de proteínas como um hidrolisado de alto valor nutricional. O pré-tratamento com peróxido de hidrogênio (5 M, 1 h) para casca de soja desproteinizada removeu 56% de lignina sem perdas de celulose, entretanto, este pré-tratamento não contribuiu para uma eficiente atuação da endoxilanase sobre a fração hemicelulósica (produção de aproximadamente 30 mg de AR/g biomassa seca). O pré-tratamento organossolve-etanol 50% (v/v) da casca de soja desproteinizada removeu em torno de 50% de lignina com baixa solubilização de hemicelulose (< 17%), gerando, portanto, um líquido com baixa concentração de substrato para a ação da endoxilanase. Os pré-tratamentos organossolve-etanol 50 e 70% (v/v) da casca de soja in natura foram capazes de solubilizar em torno de 30% da hemicelulose, sendo possível a produção de 76 e 49 mg de AR/g de biomassa seca, respectivamente, após hidrólise com endoxilanase. Por fim, a ação das microondas sobre a biomassa lignocelulósica provavelmente reduziu a recalcitrância da biomassa, pois a hidrólise da casca in natura com endoxilanase (100 U/g de casca) produziu aproximadamente 100 mg de AR/g de biomassa seca, ao contrário da hidrólise conduzida em reator com aquecimento convencional que produziu em torno de 52 mg de AR/g de biomassa seca. Os resultados deste trabalho indicam que a combinação de irradiação micro-ondas e hidrólise enzimática pode ser uma alternativa promissora para a produção de XOS.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:24:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2005-08-25Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:52:31Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 pedro_mam_me_sjrp.pdf: 977007 bytes, checksum: 33a5c50b033be5da84fd3ee27ae2d684 (MD5) / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq) / Neste trabalho estudou-se a influência de pré-tratamentos químicos, com emulsões a base de óleo e lecitina de soja e carbonato de potássio, sobre a cinética de secagem da uva Rubi. A secagem foi conduzida em um secador de leito fixo, à temperatura fixa de 60ºC, velocidade de ar de 0,9 m/s e umidade relativa do ar de secagem do ambiente na faixa de 18 a 20 %. A umidade inicial das amostras de uva Rubi variou entre 81 a 84% (base seca) e o conteúdo de sólidos solúveis ficou em torno de 11o Brix. O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar um pré-tratamento alternativo a base de lecitina e óleo de soja na cinética de secagem da uva Rubi, otimizando as concentrações dessas substâncias de modo a minimizar o tempo de secagem. Foram calculados os coeficientes de difusividade aparente a partir do ajuste dos dados experimentais de secagem pela solução analítica da 2a Lei de Fick para uma esfera. A desconsideração do encolhimento da fruta levou ao péssimo ajuste dos dados pela 2a Lei de Fick. As curvas de secagem foram ajustadas pelo modelo de Page. A avaliação deste modelo foi feita pelo cálculo do R2 (> 0,99) e do RMS (< 30%). Este ajuste representou satisfatoriamente os dados experimentais às curvas. A cinética de secagem foi avaliada pela análise estatística dos efeitos das condições do pré-tratamento químico - tempo de imersão da uva e concentração de lecitina, carbonato de potássio e óleo de soja nas emulsões - sobre o parâmetro K do modelo de Page. Observou-se que o tempo de imersão e suas interações com as concentrações dos componentes em estudo não foram significativos no nível de 5%. Quando todos os componentes são empregados nas máximas e mínimas concentrações testadas, mesmo para o mínimo tempo de imersão (3 minutos), há um aumento no valor do parâmetro K, o qual está diretamente ligado... Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / The influence of pretreatments of emulsions of lecithin, soya oil and potassium carbonate on drying kinetic of grape Rubi was studied in this work. The drying was carried out in a fixed bed dryer, at 60ºC, air velocity of 0,9 m/s and relative humidity of drying air in range from 18 to 20%. The initial moisture varied from 81 to 84% and soluble solids content was 11º Brix. The objective was to study an alternative pretreatment with lecithin, soya oil and potassium carbonate, optimizing the concentration of these substances with the aim of decrease the drying time. The apparent diffusion coefficients were calculated by the adjustment of the experimental data of drying by the analytical solution of the second Fick’s Law for a spherical geometry. The fruit shrinkage wasn’t taken in consideration. These carried out the bad adjustment of data by the second Fick`s Law. The drying curves were adjustment by Page’s model. The evaluation was goodness fit was shown through the analysis of the coefficient of determination (R2 > 0,99) and RMS (< 30%). This adjustment was good. The drying kinetics was valued through the statistical analysis of chemical pretreatment effects – dipping time of grape and concentration of lecithin, potassium carbonate and soya oil – on the parameter k of Page´s model. It was checked that dipping time and their interactions with the concentrations of the components in study were not significant in the level of 5%. When all components are spent in maximum and minimum concentration tested, even for the minimum dipping time (3 minutes), there is an increase in value of parameter K, which is straight into to the drying rate and reduction of drying time. The equilibrium moisture used in the calculation of adimensional for drying curves was obtained by isotherms data of Rubi grape without... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:01:21Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RodrigoCG_DISSERT_2010.pdf: 836774 bytes, checksum: 86ff894110e71c4fda4b7950daeb0674 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-02-26 / Nowadays generation ethanol second, that t is obtained from fermentation of sugars of hydrolyses of cellulose, is gaining attention worldwide as a viable alternative to petroleum mainly for being a renewable resource. The increase of first generation ethanol production i.e. that obtained from sugar-cane molasses could lead to a reduction of lands sustainable for crops and food production. However, second generation ethanol needs technologic pathway for reduce the bottlenecks as production of enzymes to hydrolysis the cellulose to glucose i.e. the cellulases as well as the development of efficient biomass pretreatment and of low-cost. In this work Trichoderma reesei ATCC 2768 was cultivated under submerged fermentation to produce cellulases using as substrates waste of lignocellulosic material such as cashew apple bagasse as well as coconut bagasse with and without pretreatment. For pretreatment the bagasses were treated with 1 M NaOH and by explosion at high pressure. Enzyme production was carried out in shaker (temperature of 27?C, 150 rpm and initial medium pH of 4.8). Results showed that T.reesei ATCC 2768 showed the higher cellulase production when the cashew apple bagasse was treated with 1M NaOH (2.160 UI/mL of CMCase and 0.215 UI/mL of FPase), in which the conversion of cellulose, in terms of total reducing sugars, was of 98.38%, when compared to pretreatment by explosion at high pressure (0.853 UI/mL of CMCase and 0.172 UI/mL of Fpase) showing a conversion of 47.39% of total reducing sugars. Cellulase production is lower for the medium containing coconut bagasse treated with 1M NaOH (0.480 UI/mL of CMcase and 0.073 UI/mL of FPase), giving a conversion of 49.5% in terms of total reducing sugars. Cashew apple bagasse without pretreatment showed cellulase activities lower (0.535 UI/mL of CMCase and 0,152 UI/mL of FPase) then pretreated bagasse while the coconut bagasse without pretreatment did not show any enzymatic activity. Maximum cell concentration was obtained using cashew nut bagasse as well as coconut shell bagasse treated with 1M NaOH, with 2.92 g/L and 1.97 g/L, respectively. These were higher than for the experiments in which the substrates were treated by explosion at high pressure, 1.93 g/L and 1.17 g/L. Cashew apple is a potential inducer for cellulolytic enzymes synthysis showing better results than coconut bagasse. Pretreatment improves the process for the cellulolytic enzyme production / Recentemente o etanol de segunda gera??o, obtido da fermenta??o dos hidrolisados de celulose, vem despertando a aten??o mundial por ser uma alternativa vi?vel e ambientalmente correta ao petr?leo, uma vez que aumentar a produ??o de etanol a partir do mela?o da cana-de-a??car, o etanol de primeira gera??o, implicaria na utiliza??o de terras destinadas a produ??o de alimentos. Entretanto, o etanol de celulose exige rotas tecnol?gicas que ainda o tornam pouco competitivo, como a produ??o de enzimas que quebrem a celulose em glicose, as celulases, e a ado??o de um processo de pr?-tratamento eficiente e de baixo custo capaz de diminuir o grau de intera??o que existe nas fibras vegetais. No presente trabalho, Trichoderma reesei ATCC 2768 foi cultivada em meio submerso para produ??o de celulases utilizando como substratos res?duos lignocelul?sicos, baga?o do ped?nculo de caju e baga?o de coco, sem tratamento e tratados com NaOH 1M e por explos?o a alta press?o. Os experimentos de produ??o das enzimas foram realizados em meio submerso e conduzidos em incubador rotat?rio (temperatura de 27?C, velocidade de agita??o de 150 rpm e pH inicial do meio de 4,8). Os resultados mostraram que T. reesei ATCC 2768 apresentou maior produ??o de celulases em meio contendo baga?o do ped?nculo de caju tratado com NaOH 1M (2,160 UI/mL de CMCase e 0,215 UI/mL de FPase), onde o consumo de celulose em forma de a??cares redutores totais foi de 98,38%, quando comparado com o mesmo tratado por explos?o a alta press?o (0,853 UI/mL de CMCase e 0,172 UI/mL de Fpase), apresentando um consumo de 47,39% de ART s. Os resultados mostraram ainda que a produ??o de celulase ? menor em meio contendo baga?o de coco tratado com NaOH 1M (0,480 UI/mL de CMcase e 0,073 UI/mL de FPase), chegando-se a 49,5% de ART s consumidos. O baga?o do ped?nculo de caju sem tratamento apresentou uma atividade bem inferior (0,535 UI/mL de CMCase e 0,152 UI/mL de FPase) quando comparado aos baga?os com tratamento e o baga?o de coco n?o-tratado n?o apresentou atividade enzim?tica. A concentra??o m?xima de c?lulas foi maior quando se utilizou como substrato os baga?os do ped?nculo de caju e casca de coco tratados alcalinamente, 2,92 g/L e 1,97 g/L, respectivamente, do que aqueles tratados por explos?o a alta press?o, 1,93 g/L e 1,17 g/L. Conclui-se que o ped?nculo de caju ? um potencial indutor ? s?ntese de enzimas celulol?ticas, apresentando-se melhor que o baga?o de coco bem como o tratamento melhora bastante o processo de s?ntese das enzimas.

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Plasma pretreatments are environmentally benign and energy efficient processes for modifying the surface chemistry of materials. In an effort to improve the strength of the titanium alloy/FM-5 polyimide adhesive joint for aerospace applications, oxygen plasma pretreatments and novel thin plasma polymerized (PP) films were investigated as adhesion promoters. Plasma treatments were carried out using custom-built, low pressure, radio frequency, inductively coupled plasma reactors. Ti-6Al-4V coupons were plasma treated and used to prepare miniature single lap shear (SLS) joints. The effects of plasma pretreatments on surface chemistry were studied using x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Auger electron spectroscopy (AES), Fourier transform infrared analysis (FTIR), and contact angle measurements. Relationships between composition, mechanical properties, and adhesion of PP films on Ti-6Al-4V and silicon wafers were investigated. The nanomechanical properties (modulus, hardness and adhesion) were studied using atomic force microscopy (AFM) nanoindentation and nanoscratch testing. A design of experiments (DOE) three factorial model was used to optimize the parameters for oxygen plasma treatments. Oxygen plasma pretreatments enhanced joint strength by cleaning the titanium surface and creating an extended oxide layer. Nanoindentation of oxygen plasma treated substrates showed no change in the surface mechanical properties due to the oxygen plasma treatment. This suggested that the improved SLS strength of the oxygen plasma pretreated substrates was due to the cleaning of the substrate and the removal of carbonaceous contaminants, rather than any changes in the morphology of the oxide layer. PP acetylene films were predominantly carbon, with oxygen as the other main constituent (incorporated mostly as C-O and C=O). For all SLS specimens tested, the adhesion between PP acetylene and FM-5 adhesive was adequate. However, the strength of SLS joints was limited by the adhesion of the PP acetylene to the Ti-6Al-4V substrate. The effects of a large number of plasma parameters, such as substrate pretreatment, carrier gas, input power, flow rate and film thickness were investigated. All samples failed at the PP film/Ti-6Al-4V interface or within the PP acetylene film, and thicker PP films yielded lower SLS strengths. PP films deposited at lower power exhibited higher hardness and reduced modulus than films deposited at higher power. Overall, thinner films exhibited higher hardness and reduced Young's modulus than thicker films. PP films of higher hardness yielded higher critical loads at debond (thickness normalized) during the nanoscratch test. Thin films were developed via the vapor plasma polymerization of titanium(IV) isobutoxide (TiiB). XPS results suggested that titanium was incorporated into the film as TiO2 clusters dispersed in an organic matrix. No evidence for Ti-C was obtained from the XPS spectra. PP films of TiiB were much more compliant than PP acetylene films. This behavior was attributed to decreased fragmentation and lower crosslinking that occurred during PP TiiB film deposition. These PP films did not exhibit sol-gel-like qualities, and because of the way titanium was incorporated into the films, a more appropriate name for these films might be "titanium dioxide-doped plasma polymerized films." / Ph. D.

[EN] Anaerobic digestion is a sustainable and technically sound way to valorise citrus waste if the inhibitory effect of the citrus essential oil (CEO) is controlled. Several strategies have been proposed to overcome these difficulties: keeping the organic loading rate (OLR) in low values to avoid excess dosage of inhibitor, supplementing the citrus waste with nutrient and buffering solutions or pre-treating the citrus waste in order to reduce the CEO concentration, either by recovery or by degradation of the CEO. Nevertheless, although some of them have been proven successful in recovering/degrading the CEO, none of them has been applied at full scale operation. The main objective of this thesis is to study the effect of the limonene (the main component of CEO) on the anaerobic digestion of citrus waste and to evaluate different strategies to improve this process. In a first approach to the problem, the effect and dynamics of the limonene in the anaerobic digestion process is studied in batch mode. The biochemical methane potential of several citrus waste types was assessed. The inhibitory concentration of limonene for the anaerobic digestion process was estimated also, observing a certain adaptation degree. Different strategies to avoid inhibition of the anaerobic digestion by limonene were studied in batch mode, namely biological treatment by fungi of the Penicillium genus, steam distillation and ethanol extraction. All treatments decreased the limonene concentration in the orange peel, with different efficiencies. Methane potential and production rate in the batch anaerobic digestion of the pretreated orange peel were not affected by the biological treatment, but an increase was observed after steam distillation and also after ethanol extraction. This effect was attributed to the removal of minority compounds of the CEO. Energy balance was negative for steam distillation and positive for the other two tested strategies. Continuous anaerobic co-digestion experiments of orange and mandarin peel with chicken and pig manure allowed observing the importance of the limonene dosage on the inhibitory effect. Systemic inhibition was observed in the mixture with higher limonene concentration, with symptoms of inhibition on methanogenesis, protein hydrolysis pathway, sulphate reduction and acetogenesis. The degradation of the limonene produced inhibitory compounds as well, causing persistent inhibition effects even after almost complete limonene degradation. Continuous anaerobic co-digestion of pretreated citrus waste with cow manure allowed for stable processes when the pretreatment was able to remove the limonene with high efficiency and without producing other inhibitory compounds (such as ¿-terpineol in the biological treatment). Thus, the pretreatments allowing for better results in terms of process stability were mechanical removal of the flavedo and ethanol extraction of the limonene. The anaerobic digestion is able to degrade the limonene, but its by-products can be even more inhibitory than the limonene itself. Therefore, it is concluded that to apply CEO recovery strategies before anaerobic digestion is recommended, since these could possibly the valorization of CEO as added value product and to increase biogas production. / [ES] La digestión anaerobia es una vía sostenible y técnicamente viable para valorizar los residuos cítricos si se controla el efecto inhibidor del aceite esencial cítrico (AEC). Se han propuesto varias estrategias para superar esta dificultad: mantener la velocidad de carga orgánica (VCO) en valores bajos para evitar dosis excesivas del inhibidor, suplementar el residuo cítrico con soluciones de nutrientes y tampón o pretratar el residuo cítrico para reducir la concentración de AEC, ya sea por recuperación o degradación del mismo. Sin embargo, aunque algunas de ellas han sido exitosas para recuperar o degradar el AEC, ninguna ha sido llevada a escala industrial. El objetivo principal de esta tesis ha sido estudiar el efecto del limoneno (el componente principal del AEC) en la digestión anaerobia de los residuos cítricos y evaluar diferentes estrategias para mejorar este proceso. En una primera aproximación al problema, se estudió el efecto y la dinámica del limoneno en la digestión anaerobia en discontinuo. Se evaluó el potencial bioquímico de metano de varios tipos de residuo cítrico y se estimó la concentración inhibitoria del limoneno para el proceso de digestión anaerobia, observando un cierto grado de adpatación. Se estudiaron diferentes estrategias para evitar la inhibición de la digestión anaerobia por limoneno en modo discontinuo: tratamiento biológico mediante hongos del género Penicillium, arrastre de vapor y extracción con etanol. Todos los tratamientos disminuyeron la concentración de limoneno en la piel de naranja, con diferentes eficiencias. El potencial de metano y la velocidad de producción en la digestión anaerobia discontinua de la piel de naranja pretratada no se vieron afectados por el tratamiento biológico, pero se observó un incremento tras el arrastre de vapor y la extracción con etanol. Este efecto se atribuyó a la extracción de compuestos minoritarios del AEC. El balance energético fue negativo para el arrastre de vapor y positivo para las otras dos estrategias. Los experimentos de co-digestión anaerobia en continuo de piel de naranja y mandarina con gallinaza y purín porcino permitieron observar la importancia de la dosis de limoneno sobre el efecto inhibitorio. Se observó inhibición sistémica en la mezcla con mayor concentración de limoneno. La degradación del limoneno produjo a su vez compuestos inhibitorios, con lo que el efecto inhibitorio persistió incluso tras la completa degradación del limoneno. La co-digestión anaerobia en continuo de residuo cítrico pretratado y estiércol de vacuno permitió tener procesos estables cuando el pretratamiento era capaz de eliminar el limoneno con alta eficiencia y sin producir otros compuestos inhibitorios (como ¿-terpineol en el caso del tratamiento biológico). Así, la eliminación mecánica del flavedo y la extracción del limoneno con etanol fueron los pretratamientos que dieron mejor resultado en términos de estabilidad del proceso. La digestión anaerobia es capaz de degradar el limoneno, pero sus subproductos pueden ser aún más inhibitorios que el propio limoneno. Por ello, se concluye que son recomendables los pretratamientos de recuperación de AEC, ya que permiten su valorización como producto de valor añadido y, a la vez, incrementar la producción de biogás mediante digestión anaerobia. / [CA] La digestió anaeròbia és una via sostenible i tècnicament viable per valoritzar els residus cítrics si es controla l'efecte inhibitori de l'oli essencial cítric (OEC). S'han proposat diverses estratègies per tal de superar aquesta dificultat: mantenir la velocitat de càrrega orgànica (VCO) en valors baixos per a evitar dosis excessives de l'inhibidor, suplementar el residu cítric amb solucions de nutrients i tamponants o pretratar el residu cítric per a reduir la concentració d'OEC, ja siga per recuperació o per degradació del mateix. Tanmateix, encara que algunes d'elles han estat exitoses per recuperar o degradar l'OEC, cap ha estat escalada a nivel industrial. L'objectiu principal d'aquesta tesi ha estat estudiar l'efecte del limonè (el component principal de l'OEC) en la digestió anaeròbia dels residus cítrics i avaluar diferents estratègies per a millorar aquest procés. En una primera aproximació al problema, es va estudiar l'efecte i la dinàmica del limonè a la digestió anaeròbia en discontinu. Es va avaluar el potencial bioquímic de metà de diferents tipus de residu cítric i es va estimar la concentració inhibitòria del limonè per al procés de digestió anaeròbia, observant-se un cert grau d'adaptació. S'estudiaren diferents estratègies per a evitar la inhibició de la digestió anaeròbia per limonè en modus discontinu: tractament biològic amb fongs del gènere Penicillium, destil·lació amb vapor i extracció amb etanol. Tots els tractaments reduiren la concentració de limonè a la pell de taronja, però amb eficiències diferents. El pre-tractament biològic no va influir en el potencial de metà ni en la velocitat de producció de la digestió anaeròbia discontínua de la pell de taronja. En canvi, s'observà un increment d'ambdós paràmetres amb la destil·lació amb vapor i l'extracció amb etanol. Aquest efecte es va atribuir a l'extracció de components minoritaris de l'OEC. El balanç energètic va ser negatiu per a la destil·lació amb vapor i positiu per a les altres dues estratègies. Els experiments de co-digestió anaeròbia en continu de pell de taronja i mandarina, amb gallinassa i purins de porc varen permetre observar la importància de la dosi de limonè sobre l'efecte inhibitori. Es va observar inhibició sistèmica a la mescla amb major concentració de limonè. La degradació del limonè va produir inhibidors, de manera que l'efecte inhibitori va persistir fins i tot després de la completa degradació del limonè. La co-digestió anaeròbia en continu de residu cítric pretractat i fem de boví va permetre tenir processos estables quan el pretractament era capaç d'eliminar el limonè amb alta eficiència i sense produir altres molècules inhibitòries (com &#945;-terpineol en el cas del tractament biològic). Així, l'eliminació mecànica de l'epicarpi i l'extracció del limonè amb etanol foren els pretractaments que donaren millor resultat en termes d'estabilitat del procés. La digestió anaeròbia és capaç de degradar el limonè, però els seus subproductes poden ser encara més inhibitoris que el propi limonè. Per això, es conclou que son recomanables els pretractaments de recuperació de OEC, ja que permenten la seva valorització com productes de valor afegit i, a la vegada, incrementar la producció de biogàs mitjançant digestió anaeròbia. / Ruiz Fuertes, B. (2015). Effect of limonene on anaerobic digestion of citrus waste and pretreatments for its improvement [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/58769