Adenosine 5’ triphosphate (ATP) is a molecule central to life for its role as the cellular energy currency, and a purine nucleotide which serves as a building block of RNA. Thus, on the backdrop of an indispensible intracellular role of ATP, its identification as an extracellular signaling molecule in early 1970s came as a surprise. A novel doctrine, termed as ‘purinergic signaling’, was thus put forth. By definition, purinergic signaling consists of the signaling events triggered by binding of extracellular ATP- a purine nucleotide, and its breakdown products (viz., ADP, AMP, and adenosine) to their cognate receptors, which in turn are termed as ‘purinergic receptors’. Based on their ligand affinity, purinergic receptors are classified into two groups- P1 and P2 receptors. P2 receptors are further subclassified as P2X and P2Y receptors. Till date, four P1 receptors (viz. A1, A2a, A2b, and A3), seven P2X receptors (P2X1-7), and eight P2Y receptors (P2Y1, P2Y2, P2Y4, P2Y6, P2Y11, P2Y12, P2Y13, and P2Y14) have been cloned and characterized. Conceptually, the first step of purinergic signaling is the release of ATP from an intact cell on encountering a stimulant or a modulator. The main mechanisms of such cellular ATP release include vesicular exocytosis and the release through conductive channels. ATP thus released, binds to its cognate receptors (i.e. P2X receptors, and certain P2Y receptors) and triggers the ‘purinergic signaling’ pathway that modulates the cellular response. In addition to purinergic receptors, cells also express ATP degrading enzymes on their surface, which break ATP down into ADP, AMP, and adenosine. ADP and adenosine, in turn, bind to their cognate receptors (certain P2Y receptors, and P1 receptors respectively) and further contribute to shaping the cellular response to a given cue. Thus, purinergic signaling is a highly dynamic process with pleiotropic downstream effects. First demonstrated in the context of neurotransmission, the phenomenon of purinergic signaling is now widely recognized and has been shown to play a role in regulating functional responses of cells of diverse origins, immune cells being one of them. Purinergic signaling in lymphocytes- an important subset of immune cells- is a common thread for the present research exercise, wherein we have addressed two sets of questions, one of academic curiosity and the other of clinical interest. In the former and the major part, we have examined whether purinergic signaling plays a role in functional aspects of ‘gamma delta (γδ) T cells’, which represent a unique subset of lymphocytes. Whereas, the latter part elaborates on the already identified involvement of purinergic signaling in T cell stimulatory action of ‘hypertonic saline (HS)’, which is used to treat trauma patients. The thesis, thus, is divided into five parts- the ‘Introduction’, ‘Aims and Scope of the study’, ‘Chapter 1’, ‘Chapter 2’, and ‘Summary of the work’. Understanding the questions posed in the present context, strategy designed to answer them, and eventually the experimental results answering these questions invoke basic knowledge of purinergic signaling, which has been attempted to be conferred through the ‘Introduction’ section. The discovery of purinergic signaling, its central theme, and individual molecular players involved in this signaling pathway are highlighted here. From the viewpoint of the present research endeavor, salient findings from the current literatureabout the involvement of purinergic signaling in the functional activities of various subsets of immune cells- are reviewed towards the end of this section. The ‘Introduction’ is followed by definition of the objectives for the present exercise, which are enlisted under ‘Aims and scope of the study’. Here, a brief overview of the background data that led us towards these objectives precedes the actual list of questions which we have approached. Purinergic signaling has been shown to play a role in the activation of ‘conventional αβ T’ cells. So we asked whether a similar purinergic signaling pathway also operates in unconventional γδ T cells. Thus, ‘Chapter 1’ is dedicated to answering the first set of questions about the role of purinergic signaling in γδ T cell activation. The chapter starts off by introducing γδ T cells. The topics such as discovery of γδ T cells, ontology, development, diversity, and distribution of these cells, and most importantly- their antigenic specificity and response are reviewed herein. The details of the experimental procedures employed to answer the defined objectives follow this introduction. We have carried out our experiments on γδ T cells in human circulation. For in vitro stimulation, we have used anti-CD3 + anti-CD28-coated beads (beads) or isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP), a γδ T cell specific stimulant. We observed that, circulating human γδ T cells rapidly release ATP on stimulation with beads or IPP. Pannexin-1 and connexin hemichannels, as well as vesicular exocytosis contribute to the ATP release. Real time RT-PCR data revealed that γδ T cells predominantly express purinergic receptors A2a, P2X1, P2X4, P2X7, and P2Y11. Of these, the inhibition of P2X4 receptors downregulated cytokine expression by γδ T cells post- in vitro stimulation, and also inhibited cytotoxic activity of γδ T cells towards Daudi cells. Selective translocation of P2X4 receptors to the immunological synapse was seen to be the underlying mechanism for these effects. Collectively, these data suggested that autocrine/paracrine purinergic signaling through P2X4 receptors indeed plays an important role in the functional aspects of circulating human γδ T cells. The experimental results are compiled in ‘Chapter 1’; which concludes with the ‘Discussion’ on the mentioned findings, and possible in vivo applications. ‘Chapter 2’ deals with the role of purinergic signaling in HS resuscitation. In addition to restoring the hemodynamic parameters, fluid replacement with small volumes of concentrated NaCl solution (HS) has been reported to reverse the suppression of T cells commonly found in the trauma subjects. Through an in vitro study using Jurkat cells as a model for primary human T cells, it has been shown earlier that, on HS exposure T cells release ATP- which binds to P2X7 receptors and promotes calcium influx. HS treatment also elicits phosphorylation of p38; and put together, Ca2+ influx and phosphorylated p38 synergize with TCR-induced stimulation resulting in the enhancement of transcriptional upregulation of IL-2. However, the mechanism of release of ATP on HS treatment and the possible involvement of P2X1 and P2X4 receptors expressed by T cells had not been addressed in this study. These very questions thus formed the objectives of the second part of present work. Experiments aimed to answer these questions showed that on HS treatment, Jurkat cells release ATP through pannexin-1 hemichannels. The released ATP binds to purinergic receptors P2X1, P2X4, and P2X7. This in turn triggers the downstream signaling cascade leading to phosphorylation of p38 and upregulation of IL-2 transcription, hence augmenting the T cell function. An overview of HS resuscitation, experimental protocols and results, and the discussion on the pathophysiological relevance of these findings comprise ‘Chapter 2’. Hence, we have found the answers to the questions we began with. The results are listed in a point-wise manner under the ‘Summary of the work’. Taken together, our data shows that: (i) Purinergic signaling does play a role in the functional aspects of circulating human γδ T cells. The release of ATP by γδ T cells post-stimulation, and autocrine/paracrine signaling through P2X4 receptors are the main components in this context. (ii) ATP release through pannexin-1 hemichannels, and autocrine/paracrine signaling through P2X1, P2X4, and P2X7 receptors underlie the mechanism of action of HS.

A Doença de Parkinson é uma doença altamente incapacitante e de grande prevalência. Pouco se sabe sobre sua etiologia e os tratamentos atuais consistem na diminuição dos sintomas, uma vez que ainda não foi encontrada uma maneira de reverter o déficit de neurônios dopaminérgicos observados nos pacientes acometidos. Sabe-se que os receptores purinérgicos são encontrados por todo o sistema nervoso central, não só no indivíduo adulto como também em diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento embrionário e estão envolvidos com proliferação e diferenciação celular. Este trabalho estudou a participação dos receptores purinérgicos em modelo animal de doença de Parkinson por lesão dos neurônios dopaminérgicos da via nigroestriatal com 6-OH dopamina (6-OHDA). Realizamos a análise do perfil de expressão gênica dos diferentes receptores após a lesão e subsequente modulação. Observamos expressão gênica alterada dos receptores P2X7 e P2Y6 até 5 semanas após a lesão. O uso do antagonista do receptor P2X7 Brilliant Blue G (BBG) induziu a regeneração da via nigroestriatal e o uso do antagonista do receptor P2Y6 MRS2578 preveniu a morte dos neurônios. Como esses efeitos foram acompanhados pela inativação de células microgliais, supõe-se que o controle do microambiente neuroinflamatório causado pela injeção de 6-OHDA seja a principal causa do efeito antiparkinsoniano observado pelo tratamento com BBG e MRS2578. Além disso, o transplante celular com células precursoras neuraisnão foi capaz de reverter o comportamento hemiparkinsoniano dos animais lesionados. Apesar do uso concomitante com BBG reduzir o comportamento, parece que esse efeito deve-se ao BBG per se, uma vez que o tratamento somente com o antagonista de P2X7 foi mais eficaz. De maneira geral, a modulação da atividade dos receptores purinérgicos se mostrou uma ferramenta promissora na pesquisa de cura e compreensão das bases moleculares da Doença de Parkinson / Parkinson\'s disease is a highly disabling and prevalent disease. Little is known about its etiology and the current treatments consist in the reduction of the symptoms, since there is no known method to reverse the dopaminergic neurons deficit observed in patients. Purinergic receptors are found throughout the central nervous system, not only in the adult individual but also at different stages of embryonic development, and are involved in proliferation and differentiation. This work investigated the role of purinergic receptors in the animal model of Parkinson\'s disease induced by 6-OH dopamine (6-OHDA) injection and consequent death of dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal pathway. Patterns of purinergic receptors gene expression after the lesion and subsequent modulation were analyzed. We observed altered gene expression of P2X7 and P2Y6 receptors within 5 weeks of injury. The use of the P2X7 receptor antagonist Brilliant Blue G (BBG) induced the regeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway and treatment with P2Y6 receptor antagonist MRS2578 prevented the death of the neurons. Since these effects were accompanied by the inactivation of microglial cells, it is assumed that the control of neuroinflammatory milieu caused by the 6-OHDA injection is the main cause of the antiparkinsonian effect observed by the treatment with BBG and MRS2578. In addition, transplantation with neural precursor cells was not able to reverse the hemiparkinsonian behavior of injured animals. Although concomitant use with BBG improved cell engraftment, it appears that this effect is due to BBG per se, since treatment with only this P2X7receptor antagonist was more effective. In general, modulation of purinergic receptor activity showed to be a promising tool in the research of cure and understanding of the molecular bases of Parkinson\'s Disease.

Neste trabalho foram analisados os efeitos do BBG nos neurônios mioentéricos imunorreativos ao receptor P2X7 no íleo de ratos submetidos à isquemia e reperfusão (I/R). A isquemia intestinal foi obtida pela oclusão dos vasos ileais por 45 minutos, com reperfusão de 0 hora (h), 24 h e 14 dias. O BBG foi aplicado nos grupos I/R 24 h e I/R 14 dias nas dosagens de 50 e 100 mg/Kg. O grupo I/R 0 h é o grupo sem reperfusão. Os tecidos foram preparados para análises de duplas marcações, western blotting, histoquímica da mieloperoxidase, histologia e motilidade intestinal. Os resultados demonstraram a presença do receptor P2X7 nos neurônios mioentéricos. Houve uma diminuição da densidade e da área do perfil dos neurônios mioentéricos nos grupos I/R e nos grupos com o BBG houve uma recuperação dos neurônios. Nos grupos I/R houve aumento na expressão do receptor P2X7 e no número de neutrófilos e diminuição da motilidade. Os resultados sugerem que a I/R afetou os neurônios mioentéricos e que o BBG possa ter atenuado os efeitos da I/R, demonstrando uma provável neuroproteção. / We analyzed the effects of BBG antagonist on the P2X7 receptor and rats ileum enteric neurons subjected to I/R. Intestinal ischemia was obtained by ileal vessels obstruction for 45 minutes, followed by reperfusion of 0 h, 24 h and 14 days. The BBG was applied in I/R 24 h and 14 days groups in dosages of 50 and 100 mg/kg. The I/R 0 h is the group without reperfusion. Tissues were prepared by double labeling, western blotting, myeloperoxidase reaction, histology and intestinal motility analyzes. Our results demonstrated the presence of the P2X7 receptor in myenteric neurons. There was a decrease in density and in the area of the cell body profile of the myenteric neurons in the I/R groups and recovery in the BBG groups. In I/R groups there was an increase in the expression of P2X7 receptor and in the number of neutrophils and there was a decrease in intestinal motility and recover in the BBG groups. The results suggest that I/R affect the myenteric neurons and that the BBG may have attenuated the effects of ischemia, thus demonstrating a possible neuroprotection.

Orientador: Patricia Maria de Paula / Banca: Luciane Helena Gargaglioni Batalhão / Banca: Lisandra Brandino de Oliveira / Resumo: Estudos recentes demonstram que os receptores purinérgicos estão presentes no núcleo parabraquial lateral (NPBL), uma estrutura pontina envolvida no controle da ingestão de sódio. No presente estudo, investigamos os efeitos das injeções do, -methyleneadenosine 5 -triphosphate (, -metileno ATP, agonista dos receptores P2X) sozinho ou combinado com o ácido piridoxalfosfato-6-azofenil-2',4'-disulfônico (PPADS, antagonista dos receptores P2X) ou suramin (antagonista não seletivo dos receptores P2) no NPBL sobre a ingestão de NaCl 1,8% induzida por depleção de sódio. Também investigamos os efeitos da injeção de, -metileno ATP sozinho ou combinado com o PPADS no NPBL sobre a pressão arterial média (PAM) e freqüência cardíaca (FC) em ratos saciados e depletados de sódio. Foram utilizados ratos Holtzman com implante de cânulas implantadas bilateralmente em direção ao NPBL. A depleção de sódio foi induzida pelo tratamento com o diurético furosemida (20 mg/kg do peso corporal) acompanhado de uma dieta deficiente em sódio por 24 horas. As injeções bilaterais de, -metileno ATP (2,0 e 4,0 nmol/0,2 μL) no NPBL aumentaram a ingestão de NaCl 1,8% induzida por depleção de sódio (25,3 ± 0,8 e 26,5 ± 0,9 mL/2 h, respectivamente, vs. salina: 15,2 ± 1,3 mL/2 h). O pré-tratamento com o suramin (2,0 nmol/0,2 μL) ou com o PPADS (4,0 nmol/0,2 μL) no NPBL aboliu os efeitos do, -metileno-ATP na ingestão de NaCl 1,8% (15,2 ± 1,2 e 16,9 ± 0,9 mL/2 h, respectivamente). As injeções de PPADS sozinho no NPBL não alteraram a ingestão de NaCl 1,8% (14,6 ± 0,8 mL/2 h vs. salina: 18,3 ± 1,8 mL/2 h). No entanto, as injeções de suramin sozinho no NPBL quase aboliram a ingestão de NaCl 1,8% (5,7 ± 1,9 mL/120 min, vs. salina: 15,5 ± 1,1 mL/120 min) e aumentaram a ingestão de sacarose 2% somente no tempo de 90 minutos (7,1 ± 1,3 vs. salina: 5,3 ± 0,8 mL/90 min) sem alterar...(Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: Recent studies have shown that purinergic receptors are present in the lateral parabrachial nucleus (LPBN), a pontine structure involved in the control of sodium intake. In the present study, we investigated the effects of, -methyleneadenosine 5 -triphosphate (, - methylene ATP, selective P2X purinergic agonist) alone or combined with pyridoxalphosphate-6-azophenyl-2',4'-disulfonic acid (PPADS, P2X purinergic antagonist) or suramin (non-selective P2 purinergic antagonist) injected into the LPBN on sodium depletion-induced by 1.8% NaCl intake. We also investigated the effects of, -methylene ATP alone or combined with PPADS injected into the LPBN on mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR) on replete and sodium depleted rats. Male Holtzman rats with stainless steel cannulas implanted into the LPBN were used. Sodium depletion was induced by treating rats with the diuretic furosemide (20 mg/kg of body weight) followed by 24 h of sodium-deficient diet. Bilateral injections of, -methylene ATP (2.0 and 4.0 nmol/0.2 μL) into the LPBN increased sodium depletion-induced 1.8% NaCl intake (25.3 ± 0.8 and 26.5 ± 0.9 mL/2 h, respectively, vs. saline: 15.2 ± 1.3 mL/2 h). Pre-treatment with suramin (2.0 nmol/0.2 μL) or PPADS (4 nmol/0.2 μL) into the LPBN abolished the effects of, - methylene-ATP on 1.8% NaCl intake (15.2 ± 1.2 and 16.9 ± 0.9 mL/2 h, respectively). Injections of PPADS alone into the LPBN did not change 1.8% NaCl intake (14.6 ± 0.8 ml/2 h vs. saline: 18.3 ± 1.8 mL/2 h). However, injections of suramin alone into the LPBN strongly reduced 1.8% NaCl intake (5.7 ± 1.9 mL/120 min, vs. saline: 15.5 ± 1.1 mL/2 h) and increased the 2% sucrose intake only at 90 min (7.1 ± 1.3 vs. saline: 5.3 ± 0.8 mL/90 min), without changing 24h water deprivation-induced water intake (16.7 ± 1.8 mL/2 h vs. saline: 15.0 ± 2.1 mL/2 h)... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Mestre

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:22:13Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6779.pdf: 4081865 bytes, checksum: f8c80484ba3b15da8905a6d3499ac8f2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-26 / Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais / The lateral parabrachial nucleus (LPBN) is an important area of the hindbrain circuitry involved in cardiorespiratory control. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is considered an important central neurotransmitter and purinergic receptors are present in the LPBN. The involvement of purinergic mechanisms of the LPBN in the cardiorespiratory control during hypoxia is still unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effects of alpha, beta-me ATP (P2X purinergic agonist) alone or combined with PPADS (P2 purinergic receptor antagonist) injected into the LPBN on cardiorespiratory responses induced by acute hypoxia (7% O2 for 60 min) in unanesthetized rats and chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH) (10% O2, 8 hours/7 days) in anesthetized rats. Additionally, in another unanesthetized rats group, we investigated the effect of acute hypoxia (7% O2 for 60 minutes) on the activity of LPBN neurons and also the effect of alpha, beta-me ATP injected into the LPBN on Fos immunoreactivity at NTS induced by acute hypoxia (7% O2 for 60 min). In unanesthetized group, we used male Holtzman rats (290-310 g, n=8/group) with stainless steel cannulas implanted bilaterally into the LPBN. A polyethylene tubing was inserted into abdominal aorta through femoral artery for recording mean arterial pressure (MAP) and heart rate (HR). Respiratory frequency (fR), tidal volume (VT) and ventilation (VE) were recorded by whole-body plethysmography. The unanesthetized rats received bilateral injections of PPADS (4 nmol/0.2 &#956;L) into the LPBN 10 minutes before injections of alpha, beta-me ATP (2 nmol/0.2 &#956;L) or saline into the LPBN. Ten minutes after the LPBN injections, a hypoxic gas mixture (7% O2) was ventilated in the chamber for 60 minutes. In anesthetized group, we used Sprague Dawley rats (300-400 g, n=7) were exposed for 7 days to CIH (alternating 6 min periods of 10% O2 and 4 min of 21% O2 from 8 am to 4 pm; and continuous exposition to normoxic at 21% O2 from 4 pm to 8 am). Mean arterial pressure (MAP), heart rate (HR), renal sympathetic nerve discharge (RSND) and amplitude and phrequency of phrenic nerve activity (PNA) were recorded in rats anesthetized with urethane and alpha chloralose, vagotomized and mechanically ventilated. The anesthetized rats received a unilateral injections of alpha, beta-me ATP (2.0 nmol/50 nL) before, 10 and 30 minutes after PPADS (0.125 nmol/50 nL) into the LPBN. For immunohistochemistry group we used male Holtzman rats, we studied the expression of Fos in the LPBN and medial parabrachial nucleus (MPBN) of unanesthetized rats exposed to 1 h of acute hypoxia, on another group, the animals received a bilateral injections of alpha, beta-me ATP into the LPBN or saline 10 minutes (n= 5/group) before the acute hypoxia for 1 h. After this period, the rats were deeply anesthetized and perfused to remove the brains and carrying out immunohistochemical procedures. In unanesthetized rats, bilateral injections of alpha,beta-me ATP into the LPBN potentiated acute hypoxia-induced increase in VT (&#61508;&#61472;= 4.0±0.3 mL/kg, vs. saline 2.2±0.2 mL/kg, or 81% of increase, p= 0.005) and VE (&#61508;&#61472;= 871±55 mL/kg/min, vs. saline: 598±60 ml/kg/min, or 45% of increase, p= 0.009), without changing hypoxia-induced tachypnea (&#61508;&#61472;fR = 49±5 cpm, vs. saline: 48±5 cpm). The pre-treatment with PPADS into the LPBN abolished the responses produced by alpha, beta-me ATP. Bilateral injections of alpha,beta-me ATP into the LPBN did not affect the hypotension, and tachycardia induced by acute hypoxia. In normoxic anesthetized rats, unilateral injections of alpha, beta-me ATP (2.0 nmol/50 nL) into the LPBN increased MAP (&#916; = 10±2 mmHg, vs. saline: 0±1 mmHg, p<0.05), RSND (&#916; = 40±12%, vs. saline: 1±1%) and phrequency PNA (&#916; = 17±5 cpm, vs. saline: 0±1 cpm, p<0.05), without changing HR and amplitude PNA. Unilateral injection of PPADS into the LPBN abolished the increase in MAP (&#916; = 0±1 mmHg), RSND (&#916; = 3±3.1%) and phrequency PNA (&#916; = 1±1 cpm) produced by alpha, beta-me ATP injected into LPBN. In anesthetized CIH rats, the injection of alpha, beta-me ATP into the LPBN increased even more MAP (&#916; = 20±2, vs. saline: -1±1 mmHg), HR (&#916; = 25±5 bpm, vs. saline: -1±1 bpm) and amplitude PNA (&#916; = 87±31%, vs. saline: 2±1%), in addition to have increased also frequency PNA (&#916; = 17±5 cpm, vs. saline: -1±1 cpm). In immunohistochemistry group the acute hypoxia produces activation of the LPBN neurons (93 ± 8, vs. normoxic 22 ± 8 cells), while the injection of alpha, beta-me ATP into the LPBN potentiated the Fos expression in caudal NTS (NTSc; 88 ± 4, vs. saline: 42 ± 8 cells) and rostral NTS (NTSr, 62 ± 8, vs. saline: 38 ± 4 cells). In conclusion, our data suggest that the P2 receptors into the LPBN are involved in the cardiorespiratory responses induced by acute hypoxia and chronic intermittent hypoxia and these responses activate neurons in the NTS, suggesting possible direct or indirect projections between the LPBN and the NTS. / O núcleo parabraquial lateral (NPBL) é uma importante área da circuitaria do tronco encefálico envolvida no controle cardiorrespiratório. A adenosina trifosfato (ATP) é considerada um importante neurotransmissor e os receptores purinérgicos estão presentes no NPBL. O envolvimento de mecanismos purinérgicos do NPBL no controle cardiorrespiratório durante a hipóxia ainda é desconhecido. No presente estudo, investigamos os efeitos do alfa, beta-metileno ATP (alfa, beta-me ATP, agonista purinérgico P2X) sozinho ou combinado com PPADS (antagonista dos receptores purinérgicos P2) injetado no NPBL sobre as respostas cardiorrespiratórias induzidas por hipóxia aguda (7% O2 por 60 min) em ratos não anestesiados e hipóxia crônica intermitente (HCI, 10% de O2, 8 horas/7 dias) em ratos anestesiados. Além disso, em um outro grupo de ratos não anestesiados, investigamos o efeito da hipóxia aguda (7% de O2, durante 60 min) sobre a atividade dos neurônios do NPBL e também o efeito da injeção de alfa, beta-me ATP no NPBL sobre a imunorreatividade à proteína Fos no NTS induzido por hipóxia aguda. No grupo de ratos não anestesiados, foram utilizados ratos Holtzman (290-310 g, n = 8/ grupo) com cânulas de aço inoxidável implantadas bilateralmente no NPBL. Um tubo de polietileno foi inserido na aorta abdominal através da artéria femoral para registro da pressão arterial média (PAM) e frequência cardíaca (FC). A frequência respiratória (fR), volume corrente (VC) e ventilação (VE) foram registrados através da pletismografia de corpo inteiro. Os ratos não anestesiados receberam injeções bilaterais de PPADS (4 nmol/0,2 &#956;L) no NPBL 10 minutos antes da injeção de alfa, beta-me ATP (2 nmol/0,2 &#956;L) ou salina no NPBL. Dez minutos após as injeções no NPBL, uma mistura de gás hipóxico (7% de O2) foi ventilado na câmara, durante 60 minutos. No grupo de ratos anestesiado, foram utilizados ratos Sprague Dawley (300-400 g, n = 7) que foram expostos por 7 dias à HCI (alternando períodos de 6 minutos de 10% de O2 e 4 min de 21% O2 entre as 08:00- 16:00 hs; e exposição contínua à normóxia em 21% O2 entre as 08:00-16:00 hs). PAM, FC, atividade nervosa simpática renal (ANSR) e atividade do nervo frênico (ANF) foram registradas em ratos anestesiados com uretana e alfa cloralose, vagotomizados e ventilados mecanicamente. Os animais anestesiados receberam injeções unilaterais de alfa, beta-me ATP (2,0 nmol/50 nL) antes, 10 e 30 minutos após PPADS (0,125 nmol/50 nL) no NPBL. Para o grupo de imunohistoquímica, foram utilizados ratos Holtzman, onde estudamos a expressão da proteína Fos no NBPL e núcleo parabraquial medial (NPBM) de ratos não anestesiados submetidos a 1 h de hipóxia aguda. Em um outro grupo, os animais receberam injeções bilaterais no NPBL de alfa, beta-me ATP ou salina (n = 5/grupo) 10 minutos antes da hipóxia aguda durante 1 h. Após este período, os ratos foram anestesiados profundamente e perfundidos para a remoção dos encéfalos e realização de procedimentos de imunohistoquímica. Nos ratos não anestesiados as injeções bilaterais de alfa, beta-me ATP no NPBL potencializou o aumento no VC (&#61508;= 4,0 ± 0,3 ml/kg, vs. salina: 2,2 ± 0,2 mL/kg, ou 81% de aumento, p = 0,005) e VE (&#61508;= 871 ± 55 mL/kg/min, vs. salina: 598 ± 60 ml/kg/min, ou seja 45% de aumento, p = 0,009), sem alterar taquipneia (&#61508;fR = 49 ± 5 cpm, vs. salina: 48 ± 5 cpm) induzida por hipóxia aguda. O pré-tratamento com PPADS no NPBL aboliu as respostas de alfa, beta-me ATP. Injeções bilaterais de alfa, beta-me ATP no NPBL não afetou a hipotensão e taquicardia induzidos pela hipóxia aguda. Em ratos anestesiados expostos a normóxia por 7 dias, as injeções unilaterais de alfa, beta-me ATP (2,0 nmol/50 nL) aumentou a PAM (&#916; = 10 ± 2 mmHg, vs. salina: 0 ± 1 mmHg, p <0,05), ANSR (&#916; = 40 ± 12%, vs. salina: 1 ± 1%) e frequência da ANF (&#916; = 17 ± 5 cpm, vs. salina: 0 cpm ± 1cpm), sem alterar FC e a amplitude da ANF. O pré-tratamento com PPADS (0,125 nmol/50 nL) no NPBL aboliu o aumento da PAM (&#916; = 0 ± 1 mmHg), ANSR (&#916; = 3 ± 3,1%) e a frequência da ANF (&#916; = 1 ± 1 cpm) produzidos pela injeção de alfa, beta-me ATP. Em ratos anestesiados expostos à HCI, a injeção de alfa, beta-me ATP no NPBL aumentou ainda mais PAM (&#916; = 20 ± 2, vs. salina: -1 ± 1 mmHg), FC (&#916; = 25 ± 5 bpm, vs. salina: -1 ± 1 bpm) e a amplitude da ANF (&#916; = 87 ± 31%, vs. salina: 2 ± 1%), além de ter aumentado também a freqüência da ANF (&#916; = 17 ± 5 cpm, vs. salina: -1 ± 1 cpm, p <0,05). No grupo imunohistoquímica, a hipóxia aguda produziu a ativação dos neurônios do NPBL (93 ± 8, normóxia, vs. 22 ± 8 células), enquanto que a injeção de alfa, beta-me ATP no NPBL potencializou a expressão de Fos no NTS caudal (NTSc; 88 ± 4, vs. salina: 42 ± 8 células) e rostral (NTSr, 62 ± 8, vs. salina: 38 ± 4 células). Concluindo, nossos resultados sugerem que os receptores P2 do NPBL estão envolvidos nas respostas cardiorrespiratórias induzidas por hipóxia aguda e hipóxia crônica intermitente e essas respostas ativam neurônios no NTS, sugerindo possíveis projeções diretas ou indiretas entre o NPBL e o NTS.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:22:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 4404.pdf: 1810111 bytes, checksum: 6d3d450fd7a8a81c835b1a82a6176dba (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-02 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The central nervous system (CNS) has an important role in maintaining the composition and volume of body fluids for the appropriate tissue perfusion. An important area of the CNS that receives cardiorespiratory afferents is the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) that has several types of neurotransmitters, includingL-glutamate and adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP). Neuroendocrine changes that occur during sodium depletion could change glutamatergi c and purinergic neurotransmissions into the NTS. Thus, in this study, we investigated : 1) the effects of sodium depletion on cardiorespiratory responses before and after injections of L -glutamate and α,β-methyleneadenosine 5′-triphosphate (α,β-methyl ATP, a selective P2X purinergic receptor agonist) into the NTS of unanesthetized and sodium depleted rats; 2) the cardiorespiratory responses of the injection of α,β-methyl ATP before and after the blockade of P2 receptor purinergic antagonist with suramin (non-selective P2 purinergic receptor antagonist) into NTS of unanesthetized and normovolemic rats and 3) to describe the autonomic components involved with the cardiovascular responses after injection of α,β-methyl ATP into the NTS. Male Holtzman rats with a cannula implanted into the NTS and catheters inserted into the femoral artery and vein were used. Ventilation (VE) was measured by whole body plethysmograph method. In relation to objective 1, the cardiorespiratory parameters were measured in normovolemic (before sodium depletion), depleted (24 h after sodium depletion) and repleted rats (two hours after free access to 0.3 M NaCl and water). Sodium depletion was induced by the treatment with the diuretic furosemide (20 mg/kg of body weight) injected subcut aneously (s.c.) followed by 24 h of sodium -deficient diet. Sodium depletion did not modify baseline MAP (104 ± 4 mmHg, vs. normovolemic: 105 ± 4 mmHg) or HR (334 ± 20 bpm, vs. normovolemic: 379 ± 13 bpm) but increased the VE (708 ± 107 ml/min/kg, vs. normovolemic: 478 ± 60 ml/min/kg). This effect was due to increase on tidal volume (VT, 7 ± 0.6 ml/kg, vs. normovolemic: 5 ± 0.4 ml/kg) without effect on the respiratory frequency (fR, 99 ± 8 cpm, vs. normovolemic: 85 ± 6 cpm). In repleted rats, VE did not return to normal level (640 ± 33 ml/min/kg, vs. normovolemic: 478 ± 60 ml/min/kg). Unilateral injections of L-glutamate (1 and 5 nmol/100 nl) into the NTS produced pressor response (17 ± 3 and 36 ± 3 mmHg, respectively, vs. saline: 3 ± 1 mmHg), bradycardia (-130 ± 15 and -169 ± 10 bpm, respectively, vs. saline: -13 ± 6 bpm) and the hyperventilation (233 ± 44 and 495 ± 114 ml/min/kg, respectively, vs. saline: 32 ± 26 ml/min/kg). Sodium depletion reduced pressor responses (4 ± 3 mmHg and 13 ± 4 mmHg, respectively) and hyperventilation (-112 ± 112 and 7 ± 115 ml/min/kg, respectively) and did not change bradycardia (-116 ± 30 and -156 ± 18 bpm, respectively). Unilateral injections of α,β-methyl ATP (2 nmol/100 nl) into the NTS also produced pressor response (36 ± 5 mmHg, vs. saline: 3 ± 1 mmHg), bradycardia (-194 ± 18 bpm, vs. saline: -13 ± 6 bpm) and did not change VE (54 ± 96 ml/min/kg, vs. saline: 32 ± 26 ml/min/kg). Sodium depletion reduced pressor response (24 ± 5 mmHg), VE ( -147 ± 184 ml/min/kg) and did not change bradycardia (-168 ± 22 bpm). In relation to objective 2, the results showed that injection of α,β-methyl ATP (2 nmol/100 nl) into NTS produced pressor response (24 ± 4 mmHg e -187 ± 39 bpm, respectively) and these responses were reduced 15 min after injection of suramin into NTS ipsilateral (13 ± 2 mmHg e -80 ± 18 bpm). Injection of α,β-methyl ATP into NTS produced no significantly change in VE. In relation to objective 3, the results showed that injection of α,β-methyl ATP (2 nmol/100 nl) into NTS promote pressor and bradycardic response (32 ± 5 mmHg and -183 ± 21 bpm). The pre-treatment with the alpha1 -adrenoceptor antagonist prazosin (1 mg/kg bw, i.v.) attenuated the increase in MAP (+10 ± 3 mmHg) without changing the bradycardic response (-192 ± 21 bpm) evoked by injection of α,β-methyl ATP into NTS. The pre-treatment with the cholinergic muscarinic antagonist, methyl-atropine (1 mg/kg bw, i.v.) did not changed the pressor response (+31 ± 6 mmHg) and abolished the bradycardic response (+21 ± 6 bpm) induced by injection of α,β-methyl ATP into the NTS. The results suggest that neuroendocrine changes produced by sodium depletion (increased level of circulating ANG II, aldosterone and the desactivation of the volume receptors and baroreceptors) may change the glutamatergic and purinergic neurotransmissions into the NTS. Furthermore, activation of P2X receptors in the NTS activates both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system to produce pressor and bradycardic responses, respectively, without changing ventilation / O sistema nervoso central (SNC) possui um papel fundamental na manutenção da composição e do volume dos líquidos corporais, para a adequada perfusão tecidual. Uma importante área do SNC que recebe aferências cardiorrespiratórias é o núcleo do trato solitário (NTS) que possui vários tipos de neurotransmissores, dentre eles o L-glutamato e adenosina-5´-trifosfato (ATP). Mudanças neuroendócrinas que ocorrem durante a depleção de sódio poderiam alterar as neurotransmissões glutamatérgica e purinérgica no NTS. Assim, neste estudo, tivemos 3 objetivos: 1) investigar os efeitos da depleção de sódio nas respostas cardiorrespiratórias antes e após a injeção de L-glutamato e α,β-metileno adenosina 5’ trifosfato (α,β-metil ATP, agonista seletivo de receptor purinérgico P2X) no NTS de ratos não anestesiados; 2) investigar as respostas cardiorrespiratórias à injeção de α,β-metil ATP no NTS antes e após o bloqueio dos receptores purinérgicos P2 com o suramin (antagonista não-seletivo de receptores P2) no NTS de ratos não anestesiados e normovolêmicos e 3) caracterizar os componentes autonômicos envolvidos nas respostas cardiovasculares após a injeção de α,β-metil ATP no NTS. Foram utilizados ratos Holtzman com cânulas implantadas no NTS e com cateter inserido na artéria e veia femoral. As medidas de ventilação (VE) foram obtidas pelo método de pletismografia de corpo inteiro. Com relação ao objetivo 1, os parâmetros cardiorrespiratórios foram medidos em ratos normovolêmicos (antes da depleção de sódio), depletados (24 h após a depleção de sódio) e ratos repletos (2 h após o livre acesso a NaCl 0,3 M e água). A depleção de sódio foi induzida pelo tratamento com o diurético furosemida (20 mg/Kg do peso corporal) injetado subcutaneamente (s.c.) acompanhado de uma dieta deficiente em sódio por 24 h. A depleção de sódio não modificou a PAM basal (104 ± 4 mmHg, vs. normovolêmicos: 105 ± 4 mmHg) nem a FC (334 ± 20 bpm, vs. normovolêmico: 379 ± 13 bpm) mas aumentou a VE (708 ± 107 ml/min/kg, vs. normovolêmico: 478 ± 60 ml/min/kg). Este efeito ocorreu devido a um aumento do volume corrente (VC, 7 ± 0,6 ml/kg, vs. normovolêmico: 5 ± 0,4 ml/kg) sem alterar a frequência respiratória (fR, 99 ± 8 cpm, vs. normovolêmicos: 85 ± 6 cpm). Em ratos repletos, a VE não retornou ao nível normal (640 ± 33 ml/min/kg vs. normovolêmico: 478 ± 60 ml/min/kg). Injeções unilaterais de Lglutamato (1 e 5 nmol/100 nl) no NTS produziu resposta pressora (17 ± 3 e 36 ± 3 mmHg, respectivamente, vs. salina: 3 ± 1 mmHg), bradicardia (-130 ± 15 e -169 ± 10 bpm, respectivamente, vs. salina: -13 ± 6 bpm) e hiperventilação (233 ± 44 e 495 ± 114 ml/min/kg, respectivamente, vs. salina: 32 ± 26 ml/min/kg). A depleção de sódio reduziu a resposta pressora (4 ± 3 mmHg e 13 ± 4 mmHg, respectivamente) e hiperventilação (-112 ± 112 e 7 ± 115 ml/min/kg, respectivamente) e não alterou a bradicardia (-116 ± 30 e -156 ± 18 bpm, respectivamente). Injeção unilateral de α,β-metil ATP (2 nmol/100 nl) no NTS também produziu resposta pressora (36 ± 5 mmHg, vs. salina: 3 ± 1 mmHg), bradicardia (- 194 ± 18 bpm, vs. salina: -13 ± 6 bpm) e não modificou a VE (54 ± 96 ml/min/kg, vs. salina: 32 ± 26 ml/min/kg). A depleção de sódio reduziu a resposta pressora (24 ± 5 mmHg), a VE (-147 ± 184 ml/min/kg) e não alterou a bradicardia (-168 ± 22 bpm). Com relação ao objetivo 2, os resultados mostraram que a injeção de α,β-metil ATP (2 nmol/100 nl) no NTS promoveu resposta pressora e bradicárdica (24 ± 4 mmHg e -187 ± 39 bpm, respectivamente) e estas respostas foram reduzidas aos 15 minutos após a injeção de suramin no NTS ipsilateral (13 ± 2 mmHg e -80 ± 18 bpm). A injeção de α,β-metil ATP no NTS não promoveu alterações significativas na VE. Com relação ao objetivo 3, os resultados mostraram que as injeções de α,β-metil ATP (2 nmol/100 nl) no NTS promoveu resposta pressora e bradicardia (+32 ± 5 mmHg e -183 ± 21 bpm). O pré-tratamento com o antagonista de receptor alfa-1 adrenérgico, prazosin (1 mg/kg de peso corporal, i.v.), atenuou o aumento da PAM (+10 ± 3 mmHg) sem alterar a bradicardia (-192 ± 21 bpm) provocada pela injeção de α,β-metil-ATP no NTS e o pré-tratamento com o antagonista colinérgico muscarínico, metil-atropina (1 mg/kg de peso corporal, i.v.) não alterou a resposta pressora (+31 ± 6 mmHg) e aboliu a bradicardia (+21 ± 6 bpm) induzida pela injeção de α,β-metil ATP no NTS. Os resultados sugerem que alterações neuroendócrinas produzidas pela depleção de sódio (aumento dos níveis de ANG II e aldosterona circulantes e a desativação de receptores de volume e dos barorreceptores) podem alterar as neurotransmissões glutamatérgica e purinérgica no NTS. Além disso, a ativação dos receptores purinérgicos P2X no NTS ativa simultaneamente o sistema nervoso simpático e parassimpático para produzir respostas pressora e bradicárdica, respectivamente, sem alterar a ventilação pulmonar.

Neste trabalho foram analisados os efeitos do BBG nos neurônios mioentéricos imunorreativos ao receptor P2X7 no íleo de ratos submetidos à isquemia e reperfusão (I/R). A isquemia intestinal foi obtida pela oclusão dos vasos ileais por 45 minutos, com reperfusão de 0 hora (h), 24 h e 14 dias. O BBG foi aplicado nos grupos I/R 24 h e I/R 14 dias nas dosagens de 50 e 100 mg/Kg. O grupo I/R 0 h é o grupo sem reperfusão. Os tecidos foram preparados para análises de duplas marcações, western blotting, histoquímica da mieloperoxidase, histologia e motilidade intestinal. Os resultados demonstraram a presença do receptor P2X7 nos neurônios mioentéricos. Houve uma diminuição da densidade e da área do perfil dos neurônios mioentéricos nos grupos I/R e nos grupos com o BBG houve uma recuperação dos neurônios. Nos grupos I/R houve aumento na expressão do receptor P2X7 e no número de neutrófilos e diminuição da motilidade. Os resultados sugerem que a I/R afetou os neurônios mioentéricos e que o BBG possa ter atenuado os efeitos da I/R, demonstrando uma provável neuroproteção. / We analyzed the effects of BBG antagonist on the P2X7 receptor and rats ileum enteric neurons subjected to I/R. Intestinal ischemia was obtained by ileal vessels obstruction for 45 minutes, followed by reperfusion of 0 h, 24 h and 14 days. The BBG was applied in I/R 24 h and 14 days groups in dosages of 50 and 100 mg/kg. The I/R 0 h is the group without reperfusion. Tissues were prepared by double labeling, western blotting, myeloperoxidase reaction, histology and intestinal motility analyzes. Our results demonstrated the presence of the P2X7 receptor in myenteric neurons. There was a decrease in density and in the area of the cell body profile of the myenteric neurons in the I/R groups and recovery in the BBG groups. In I/R groups there was an increase in the expression of P2X7 receptor and in the number of neutrophils and there was a decrease in intestinal motility and recover in the BBG groups. The results suggest that I/R affect the myenteric neurons and that the BBG may have attenuated the effects of ischemia, thus demonstrating a possible neuroprotection.

L’inflammasome NLRP3 est très impliqué dans de nombreuses pathologies inflammatoires comme la fibrose pulmonaire, la polyarthrite rhumatoïde, la goutte ou la maladie de Crohn. Cette voie de signalisation permet la libération de la cytokine pro-inflammatoire IL-1β après activation par des signaux de danger comme l’ATP ou les cristaux d’acide urique (MSU). L’objectif de cette étude est de mieux comprendre le rôle des récepteurs purinergiques dans l’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 dans les macrophages humains. Nous montrons ici que le MSU ou les analogues de l’ATP (ATPγS ou BzATP) induisent la libération d’IL-1β dans des macrophages pré-activés par du LPS. Ces macrophages proviennent de la différenciation de monocytes issus de poches de sang périphérique (buffy coat) obtenues à l’EFS (Rennes). Nous observons que des antagonistes du récepteur purinergique P2X7, des inhibiteurs de la cathepsine B ou de la caspase-1 et des siRNA ciblant les récepteurs P2X7 et P2Y2 sont capables de réduire la libération d’IL-1β par les macrophages activés. De plus, dans cette étude nous mettons en évidence le rôle des récepteurs purinergiques dans la sécrétion d’autres cytokines pro-inflammatoires comme l’IL-1α ou l’IL-6. Ce travail suggère que la voie d’activation de l’inflammasome NLRP3 par les récepteurs purinergiques représente une nouvelle cible thérapeutique dans le traitement des pathologies inflammatoires. / NLRP3-inflammasome pathway activation appears as the corner stone of manyinflammatory diseases including pulmonary fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, gout and Crohn disease. This pathway is known to be activated by danger signals such as ATP or Monosodium urate (MSU) leading to the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1β release. The aim of this study is to investigate the role of purinergic receptors in the activation of NLRP3-inflammasome pathway in human macrophages. We found here that MSU or analogs of ATP (ATPγS or BzATP) induced the release of IL-1β from LPS-primed MDM obtained from buffy coat (EFS, Rennes). We observed that purinergic P2X7 receptor antagonists, cathepsin B or caspase-1 inhibitors, siRNA targeting P2Y2R or P2X7R were able to reduce the release of IL-1β from activated macrophages. Furthermore we studied the role of purinergic receptors in pro-inflammatory cytokines release, such as IL-1α or IL-6. This study suggests that P2 receptors-NLRP3 inflammasome pathway represents a novel potential therapeutic target to control inflammation in inflammatory diseases.

A Doença de Parkinson é uma doença altamente incapacitante e de grande prevalência. Pouco se sabe sobre sua etiologia e os tratamentos atuais consistem na diminuição dos sintomas, uma vez que ainda não foi encontrada uma maneira de reverter o déficit de neurônios dopaminérgicos observados nos pacientes acometidos. Sabe-se que os receptores purinérgicos são encontrados por todo o sistema nervoso central, não só no indivíduo adulto como também em diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento embrionário e estão envolvidos com proliferação e diferenciação celular. Este trabalho estudou a participação dos receptores purinérgicos em modelo animal de doença de Parkinson por lesão dos neurônios dopaminérgicos da via nigroestriatal com 6-OH dopamina (6-OHDA). Realizamos a análise do perfil de expressão gênica dos diferentes receptores após a lesão e subsequente modulação. Observamos expressão gênica alterada dos receptores P2X7 e P2Y6 até 5 semanas após a lesão. O uso do antagonista do receptor P2X7 Brilliant Blue G (BBG) induziu a regeneração da via nigroestriatal e o uso do antagonista do receptor P2Y6 MRS2578 preveniu a morte dos neurônios. Como esses efeitos foram acompanhados pela inativação de células microgliais, supõe-se que o controle do microambiente neuroinflamatório causado pela injeção de 6-OHDA seja a principal causa do efeito antiparkinsoniano observado pelo tratamento com BBG e MRS2578. Além disso, o transplante celular com células precursoras neuraisnão foi capaz de reverter o comportamento hemiparkinsoniano dos animais lesionados. Apesar do uso concomitante com BBG reduzir o comportamento, parece que esse efeito deve-se ao BBG per se, uma vez que o tratamento somente com o antagonista de P2X7 foi mais eficaz. De maneira geral, a modulação da atividade dos receptores purinérgicos se mostrou uma ferramenta promissora na pesquisa de cura e compreensão das bases moleculares da Doença de Parkinson / Parkinson\'s disease is a highly disabling and prevalent disease. Little is known about its etiology and the current treatments consist in the reduction of the symptoms, since there is no known method to reverse the dopaminergic neurons deficit observed in patients. Purinergic receptors are found throughout the central nervous system, not only in the adult individual but also at different stages of embryonic development, and are involved in proliferation and differentiation. This work investigated the role of purinergic receptors in the animal model of Parkinson\'s disease induced by 6-OH dopamine (6-OHDA) injection and consequent death of dopaminergic neurons of the nigrostriatal pathway. Patterns of purinergic receptors gene expression after the lesion and subsequent modulation were analyzed. We observed altered gene expression of P2X7 and P2Y6 receptors within 5 weeks of injury. The use of the P2X7 receptor antagonist Brilliant Blue G (BBG) induced the regeneration of the nigrostriatal pathway and treatment with P2Y6 receptor antagonist MRS2578 prevented the death of the neurons. Since these effects were accompanied by the inactivation of microglial cells, it is assumed that the control of neuroinflammatory milieu caused by the 6-OHDA injection is the main cause of the antiparkinsonian effect observed by the treatment with BBG and MRS2578. In addition, transplantation with neural precursor cells was not able to reverse the hemiparkinsonian behavior of injured animals. Although concomitant use with BBG improved cell engraftment, it appears that this effect is due to BBG per se, since treatment with only this P2X7receptor antagonist was more effective. In general, modulation of purinergic receptor activity showed to be a promising tool in the research of cure and understanding of the molecular bases of Parkinson\'s Disease.

This diploma thesis focuses on study of the expression of purinergic receptors P2X and P2Y in the cells of neonatal adenohypofysis. Purinergic receptors are activated by binding of extracellular ATP and their activation leads to an increase in intracellular concentrations of calcium ions. The aim of this thesis was to determine by microfluorimetry method whether neonatal pituitary cells contain purinergic receptors. In addition, the influence of various agonists and antagonists of purinergic receptors on intracellular concentrations of ions Ca2+ in neonatal pituitary cells was monitored. The influence of extracellular ATP on secretion of a luteinizing hormone was observed by radioimmunoassay and it was compared with the effect of a hormone GnRH. It was found that neonatal pituitary cells are less sensitive to extracellular ATP than adult pituitary cells, but the relative sensitivity to other agonists of purinergic receptors is similar to the one of adult pituitary cells. In the mixed population of neonatal pituitary cells there were identified ATP- and 2 MeSATP- sensitive purinergic receptors P2X, as well as ADP-sensitive receptors P2Y. Further, the BzATP-sensitive receptors P2X7, PPADS-sensitive receptors P2X2 and BDBD-sensitive receptors P2X4 were identified. Finally, it was proved that...