Dans le présent travail, nous avons étendu aux solvants organiques notre méthodologie radiolytique de synthèse de polymères conducteurs (PCs), initialement développée en solutions aqueuses. Dans ce contexte, la polymérisation des PCs a été étudiée par radiolyse gamma dans différents solvants organiques et sous différentes conditions expérimentales. La synthèse radio-induite a, en particulier, été optimisée dans le dichlorométhane grâce à la variation et à l’ajustement de différents paramètres : atmosphère, dose, débit de dose, concentration des monomères, etc. Cette synthèse a ainsi pu mener à la préparation de différents types de polymères conducteurs : poly (3,4-éthylènedioxythiophène), poly (3-thiophène acétique acide) and Poly (3-hexylthiophène). Ces derniers ont été totalement caractérises en solutions ou après dépôt par des techniques analytiques, spectroscopiques et microscopiques complémentaires. Nous avons en particulier démontré la simplicité et la versatilité de la polymérisation radio-induite de TAA que ce soit dans le dichlorométhane ou dans l’eau, et avons mis en évidence quelques différentes notable entre ces deux voies de synthèse. Nous avons, par ailleurs, évalué l’influence de la nature des espèces radiolytiques oxydantes générées dans le dichlorométhane, via la variation de l’atmosphère de travail (N₂, air ou O₂), sur les propriétés des polymères conducteurs radio-synthétises, en particulier dans le cas de P3HT. Parmi les nombreuses propriétés physiques chimiques que nous avons sondées dans le cas de tous nos polymères conducteurs radio- synthétises les propriétés électroniques et électrochimiques ont fait l’objet d’une attention particulière. Nos matériaux ont alors été incorporés au sien de cellules solaires à pérovskite hybrides organiques-inorganique (PSCs) et y ont été utilisés comme matériaux de transport de trous (HTMs). Notre nouvelle stratégie radiolytique de synthèse décrite et étendu dans le présent manuscrit, ouvre sans aucun doute la voie à la préparation de nouveaux PCs nanostructurés, de morphologie contrôlée et aux propriétés augmentées : par exemple grâce à l’utilisation d’une polymérisation en microémulsions ou par le développement d’une copolymérisation raisonnée. / The extension of our original radiolytic methodology to the use of organic solvents was an important alternative approach to radiation-induced polymerization of conducting polymers (CPs) in aqueous solutions. The polymerization of CPs was studied by using gamma-radiolysis of several organic solvents under different environmental conditions. The optimization of the synthesis conditions of CPs was then conducted into dichloromethane solvent. After optimization of the synthesis conditions (atmosphere, dose, dose rate, concentration of organic monomers, etc.), the use of dichloromethane radiolysis was successfully employed to synthesize various types of conducting polymers: Poly (3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), Poly (3-thiophene acetic acid) (PTAA) and Poly (3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). The radio-synthesized polymers were fully characterized in solution and after deposition by complementary analytical, spectroscopic and microscopic techniques. Also, the simplicity and versatility of radiation induced polymerization of 3-thiophene acetic acid in dichloromethane and in aqueous solutions was demonstrated. The differences between the two radiolysis routes were highlighted. Furthermore, the influence of generating different oxidizing species under different atmospheres (N₂, air or O₂) upon ɣ-irradiation of dichloromethane solutions containing organic monomers was also studied in particular in case of P3HT. The electronic and electrochemical properties were checked for all radio-synthesized CPs. Accordingly, these polymers were then incorporated in hybrid organic and inorganic perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and used as hole transport materials (HTMs). Our new radiolytic strategy described and extended in this manuscript opens the way for the preparation of new nanostructured CPs with controlled morphology and enhanced properties by using microemulsion polymerization and also for the preparation of processable conjugated materials through copolymerization.

O segmento Pet, no agronegócio, está relacionado ao desenvolvimento das atividades de criação, produção e comercialização de animais de estimação. Este mercado cresceu 7,6% entre 2014/2015, gerou R$ 18 milhões no Brasil e 67,3% desse valor refere-se a produtos para alimentação animal, comumente chamados de Pet Food. Na alimentação animal, o alimento pode ser um único ingrediente ou uma formulação elaborada. Os ingredientes são categorizados em proteínas, carboidratos, fibras, gorduras, vitaminas e minerais. Eles são selecionados considerando os seguintes aspectos: disponibilidade, níveis de nutrientes, funcionalidade, palatabilidade, digestibilidade, custo e segurança. As matérias-primas são escolhidas de acordo com o (s) método (s) de processamento (s) em que o produto passa, sua estabilidade no processo e sua fonte nutricional durante a validade do produto. Na preservação de alimentos, o processo de irradiação é um tratamento que busca reduzir a carga microbiana dos mesmos. No entanto, também pode alterar a composição dos ingredientes presentes e formar produtos radiolíticos na formulação que ainda estão em estudo. Nos alimentos, as gorduras atuam como aporte de ácidos graxos essenciais são palatabilizantes e uma fração energética importante das rações. Nos produtos que contêm a presença de gordura, a principal preocupação são as 2-Alcilciclobutanonas (2-ACBs), que são produtos radiolíticos formados exclusivamente pós-processamento com radiação ionizante. A formação de 2- ACBs está diretamente relacionada à concentração lipídica e à dose de irradiação. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever os possíveis subprodutos radiolíticos formados em rações caninas extrusadas contendo gordura após irradiação e determinar se a formação de 2-ACBs depende do aumento da dose de radiação, assim como , verificar sua citotoxicidade e genotoxicidade em cães. / In agribusiness, the Pet segment is related to the development of the activities of creation, production and commercialization of pet food. This market grew 7.6% between 2014/2015, generated R$ 18 million in Brazil and 67.3% of this amount refers to products for animal feed, commonly called pet food. In animal nutrition the food may be a single ingredient or an elaborate formulation. Ingriedients are categorized into proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, fat, vitamins and minerals. They are selected considering the following aspects: availability, nutrient levels, functionality, palatability, digestibility, cost and safety. The raw materials are chosen according to the method (s) of processing (s) in which the product is submit, its stability in the process and its nutritional source during the validity of the product. In food preservation the irradiation process is a treatment that seeks to reduce the microbial load of the food. However, it can also alter the composition of the ingredients present and form radiolytic products in the formulation that are still under study. In foods, fats act as a contribution of essential fatty acids are palatabilizing and an important energetic fraction of the rations. In products containing the presence of fat, the main concern are 2- alkylcyclobutanones (2-ACBs), which are radiolytic products formed exclusively post-processing with ionizing radiation. The formation of 2-ACBs is directly related to the lipid concentration and the dose of irradiation. The objective of this work is to describe the possible radiolytic by-products formed in extruded fat-containing canine rations after irradiation and to determine if the formation of 2-ACBs is dependent on the radiation dose, and as well as verify their cytotoxicity and genotoxicity.

O segmento Pet, no agronegócio, está relacionado ao desenvolvimento das atividades de criação, produção e comercialização de animais de estimação. Este mercado cresceu 7,6% entre 2014/2015, gerou R$ 18 milhões no Brasil e 67,3% desse valor refere-se a produtos para alimentação animal, comumente chamados de Pet Food. Na alimentação animal, o alimento pode ser um único ingrediente ou uma formulação elaborada. Os ingredientes são categorizados em proteínas, carboidratos, fibras, gorduras, vitaminas e minerais. Eles são selecionados considerando os seguintes aspectos: disponibilidade, níveis de nutrientes, funcionalidade, palatabilidade, digestibilidade, custo e segurança. As matérias-primas são escolhidas de acordo com o (s) método (s) de processamento (s) em que o produto passa, sua estabilidade no processo e sua fonte nutricional durante a validade do produto. Na preservação de alimentos, o processo de irradiação é um tratamento que busca reduzir a carga microbiana dos mesmos. No entanto, também pode alterar a composição dos ingredientes presentes e formar produtos radiolíticos na formulação que ainda estão em estudo. Nos alimentos, as gorduras atuam como aporte de ácidos graxos essenciais são palatabilizantes e uma fração energética importante das rações. Nos produtos que contêm a presença de gordura, a principal preocupação são as 2-Alcilciclobutanonas (2-ACBs), que são produtos radiolíticos formados exclusivamente pós-processamento com radiação ionizante. A formação de 2- ACBs está diretamente relacionada à concentração lipídica e à dose de irradiação. O objetivo deste trabalho é descrever os possíveis subprodutos radiolíticos formados em rações caninas extrusadas contendo gordura após irradiação e determinar se a formação de 2-ACBs depende do aumento da dose de radiação, assim como , verificar sua citotoxicidade e genotoxicidade em cães. / In agribusiness, the Pet segment is related to the development of the activities of creation, production and commercialization of pet food. This market grew 7.6% between 2014/2015, generated R$ 18 million in Brazil and 67.3% of this amount refers to products for animal feed, commonly called pet food. In animal nutrition the food may be a single ingredient or an elaborate formulation. Ingriedients are categorized into proteins, carbohydrates, fiber, fat, vitamins and minerals. They are selected considering the following aspects: availability, nutrient levels, functionality, palatability, digestibility, cost and safety. The raw materials are chosen according to the method (s) of processing (s) in which the product is submit, its stability in the process and its nutritional source during the validity of the product. In food preservation the irradiation process is a treatment that seeks to reduce the microbial load of the food. However, it can also alter the composition of the ingredients present and form radiolytic products in the formulation that are still under study. In foods, fats act as a contribution of essential fatty acids are palatabilizing and an important energetic fraction of the rations. In products containing the presence of fat, the main concern are 2- alkylcyclobutanones (2-ACBs), which are radiolytic products formed exclusively post-processing with ionizing radiation. The formation of 2-ACBs is directly related to the lipid concentration and the dose of irradiation. The objective of this work is to describe the possible radiolytic by-products formed in extruded fat-containing canine rations after irradiation and to determine if the formation of 2-ACBs is dependent on the radiation dose, and as well as verify their cytotoxicity and genotoxicity.

It is proposed to continue operating the graphite moderated Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR) fleet past its design life. Nuclear graphite's properties change in reactor and our limited mechanistic understanding of the relationship between graphite structure, across different lengthscales, and its properties limits our ability to predict its future behaviour. An improved understanding of the relationship between graphite's structural features, the relationship between features across different lengthscales and their effect on material properties would all contribute to a mechanistic understanding of graphite behaviour. Thermal expansion generates thermal strains and stresses in the graphite core during thermal transients, such as during reactor start-up and shut-down. Thermal expansion is a function of graphite crystal thermal expansion, crystallographic preferred orientation and microstructure, although the exact relationship between these is not understood. It is also altered by neutron irradiation. This thesis investigates graphite microstructure, virgin and irradiated, and its crystallographic preferred orientation, specifically as they pertain to thermal expansion. The microstructure of British nuclear graphites PGA and Gilsocarbon, used in the Magnox and AGR fleet respectively, have been investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Trepanned AGR graphite, that is, graphite drilled from the reactor brick during routine inspection is examined. These samples are from the 2012 Hinkley Point B inspection campaign and are taken from several points through the brick thickness. This provides a 'snap shot' of current AGR graphite condition. Deep trepan samples removed from further into the brick thickness are observed for the first time. Neutron damage was observed in Magnox graphite, irradiated in an inert environment in the material test reactor programme INEEL. The spatial variation in texture of PGA and Gilsocarbon, and the change in such texture after prestress was observed using synchrotron x-ray diffraction. Numerical models were used to identify the required texture change to produce changes in CTE, observed by other authors, during in-situ stress. PGA filler lamellae are arranged in parallel arrays and Gilsocarbon's smaller platelets are arranged in bunched clusters. Severe radiolytic oxidation is observed at all trepan locations, with oxidation decreasing away from the fuel. Radiolytic oxidation occurs at platelet edges. Texture measurements have indicated that PGA graphite exhibits significant spatial variation in texture. Gilsocarbon exhibits less variation but the variation observed is large enough to cause increased thermal stresses. Texture measurements of prestressed graphite have indicated that texture changes also vary spatially. Texture results and SEM observations indicate that spatial variation in texture is caused by spatial variation in microstructure. Changes to the filler particle during prestress may alter local texture. These results indicate there is a link between nuclear graphite's microstructure and its texture. The texture, a function of lamellae or platelet arrangement, determines its thermal expansion. Spatial variations in microstructure formed during manufacturing leads to spatial variations in CTE and possibly other texture sensitive properties, such as dimensional change. Deformation of the lamellae or platelets during stress; thermal creep or irradiation creep is expected to contribute to the observed change in properties associated with these stimuli.

L'acide nitrique est largement utilisé dans le procédé de retraitement du combustible nucléaire usé, le procédé PUREX (Plutonium and Uranium Refining by EXtration). Ce procédé est fondé sur l'extraction liquide-liquide de l'uranium et du plutonium aux degrés d'oxydation (+VI) et (+IV) respectivement. Le plutonium est ensuite désextrait, et ainsi séparé de l'uranium par ajout d'uranium (+IV) stabilisé en milieu acide nitrique par des ions hydrazinium (N2H5+). Or, la radiolyse de l'acide nitrique, inhérente à la présence d'émetteurs α dans ces solutions, génère des espèces radicalaires et moléculaires susceptible de modifier, d'une part, le comportement redox des actinides et, d'autre part, de réagir avec les ions hydrazinium. Le but de ce travail est de mieux maîtriser les paramètres chimiques et physico-chimiques susceptibles de modifier les degrés d'oxydation de l'uranium et du plutonium dans les solutions d'acide nitrique. Parmi ces paramètres, le rôle de l'acide nitreux et du peroxyde d'hydrogène, générés par radiolyse de l'acide nitrique, est primordial. L'objectif est de repréciser les cinétiques de formation du peroxyde d'hydrogène et de l'acide nitreux par radiolyse alpha des milieux acide nitrique / nitrate de sodium en fonction des paramètres : acidité, concentration des ions nitrate et transfert d'énergie linéique du rayonnement ionisant.Il a été montré que la formation de peroxyde d'hydrogène diminue avec l'augmentation de la concentration des ions nitrate et augmente fortement avec l'acidité de la solution, jusqu'à atteindre une valeur stationnaire pour une acidité proche de 0,2 mol L-1. Pour sa part, la formation de l'acide nitreux est favorisée par l'augmentation de la concentration des ions nitrate. Il a été observé que G(HNO2) évolue selon deux tendance distincte, la première dans les solutions diluées d'ions nitrate et la seconde dans les solutions concentrées d‘ions nitrate. Ces deux variations traduisent des phénomènes radiolytiques directs et indirects modifiant les mécanismes de formation de HNO2. L'étude de l'acidité des solutions irradié a montré que la formation de H2O2 et de HNO2 est favorisé avec l'augmentation de la concentration des ions hydronium, jusqu'à atteindre une valeur stationnaire pour une acidité proche de 0,2 - 0,5 mol L-1.Par ailleurs, les effets induits par la nature du rayonnement ionisants (,,,…), sur les rendements de formation de H2O2 et HNO2, ont été étudiés. Il a été montré que le transfert d'énergie linéique (TEL), compris entre 0,2 keV µm-1 (caractéristique d'un rayonnement gamma) et 130 keV µm-1 (caractéristique d'un rayonnement alpha émis par la décroissance radioactive d'un actinide), a une influence significative sur les rendements de formation de H2O2 et de HNO2. Il a été observé que l'impact des ions nitrate sur le rendement de formation de H2O2 devient plus marqué, lorsque le TEL augmente. A contrario, l'impact des ions nitrate favorisant le rendement de formation de HNO2, diminue lorsque le TEL augmente. Sur la base des résultats acquis durant cette étude et des données présentes dans la littérature, deux équations paramétriques ont été développées. L'intérêt de cette paramétrisation des effets est de prédire les rendements radiolytiques de formation de H2O2 et de HNO2 selon les conditions chimique du milieu ([NO3-] ≤ 4 mol L-1 et 10-5 mol L-1 ≤ [H+] ≤ 4 mol L-1) et selon la nature du faisceau (TEL compris entre 0,2 – 130 keV µm-1).La finalité de cette étude serait de prédire les quantités de H2O2 et de HNO2 formés par radiolyse de HNO3/NaNO3 dans les étapes du procédé de retraitement des combustibles nucléaires. / Nitric acid is widely used in spent nuclear fuel reprocessing, especially in PUREX process (Plutonium and Uranium Refining by Extraction). This process is based on liquid-liquid extraction of Uranium (+VI) and Plutonium (+IV). Plutonium is separated from Uranium by addition of Uranium (+IV) in nitric acid, stabilized by hydrazinium ion (N2H5+). However, the radiolysis of nitric acid, result of the presence of alpha emitting radionuclides, generates in solutions free radicals and molecular species. These species are capable of modifying the redox state of actinides and reacting with hydrazinium ions.The aim of this work is to reveal the chemical and physical-chemical parameters that may modify the oxidation states of Uranium and Plutonium in nitric acid solutions. Among these parameters, the role of nitrous acid and hydrogen peroxide, generated by radiolysis of the nitric acid, is very important. The objective is to redefine the kinetics of formation of hydrogen peroxide and nitrous acid during alpha radiolysis of nitric acid / sodium nitrate, as a function of three parameters: acidity, nitrate concentration and the linear energy transfer of ionizing radiation.It was shown that the formation of hydrogen peroxide decreases with increasing nitrate ions concentration and increases greatly with the acidity of the solution (until it reaches a stationary value for an acidity of 0.2 mol L-1). The formation of nitrous acid is promoted by the increase the nitrate ions concentration. It was observed that G(HNO2) varies according to two trends. The first one in dilute nitrate solutions and the second in concentrated nitrate solutions. These two trends reflect the direct and indirect radiolytic phenomena, modifying the mechanisms of formation of HNO2. The study of acidity has showed that the formation of H2O2 and HNO2 is promoted by increasing the concentration of hydronium ions, until it reaches a steady state value for an acidity close to 0.2-0.5 mol L-1.Furthermore, the effects induced by ionizing radiation (,,,…) on formation yields of H2O2 and HNO2 were studied. It has been shown that the linear energy transfer (LET), between 0.2 keV µm-1 (characteristic of a gamma radiation) and 130 keV µm-1 (characteristic of the alpha radiation emitted by radioactive decay of actinides), has a significant influence on formation yield of H2O2 and HNO2. It was observed that the impact of nitrate ions on the formation yield of H2O2 becomes more pronounced when the LET increases. Conversely, the impact of nitrate ions which promote the formation of HNO2, decreases when the LET increases.Based on these results, two parametric equations were developed. The advantage of this parameterization is to predict the radiolytic yields formation of H2O2 and HNO2 according to chemical conditions ([NO3-] ≤ 4 mol L-1 and 10-5 mol L-1 ≤ [H+] ≤ 4 mol L-1) and the nature of the beam (LET between 0.2 to 130 keV µm-1).The purpose of this study is to predict the quantity of H2O2 and HNO2 formed by radiolysis of HNO3/NaNO3, during the different steps of the nuclear fuel reprocessing.

Le démantèlement des réacteurs Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz génèrera en France environ 23 000 tonnes de déchets radioactifs graphités. La gestion appropriée de ces déchets nécessite de déterminer leur inventaire radiologique et de disposer de données fiables sur la localisation et la spéciation des radionucléides (RN). Le 14C a été identifié comme RN d'intérêt pour le stockage en raison de son inventaire initial important et du risque de présence d'une fraction organique mobile dans l'environnement, lors de la phase de stockage. A ce titre, l'objectif de cette thèse CIFRE, réalisée en partenariat avec EDF, est de mettre en œuvre des études expérimentales permettant de simuler et d'évaluer l'impact de la température, de l'irradiation et de la corrosion radiolytique du graphite sur le comportement migratoire en réacteur du 14C et de son précurseur azote. Les données ainsi acquises sont intégrées dans la deuxième partie de ce travail consacrée à l'étude d'un procédé de décontamination thermique du graphite en présence de vapeur d'eau. La démarche expérimentale consiste à simuler respectivement la présence de 14C et de 14N par implantation ionique de 13C et d'azote (14N ou 15N) dans un graphite de rondin SLA2 vierge. Cette étude montre que dans la gamme de températures du graphite en réacteur (100 - 500°C) et en absence de corrosion radiolytique, le 13C est stable thermiquement quel que soit l'état de structure du graphite. En revanche, les expériences d'irradiation du graphite chauffé à 500°C au contact d'un gaz représentatif du caloporteur radiolysé montrent le rôle synergique joué par les espèces oxydantes et l'endommagement du graphite favorisant la mobilité du 13C par gazéification des surfaces et/ou oxydation sélective du 13C plus faiblement lié. En ce qui concerne l'azote constitutif, il a tout d'abord été démontré que sa concentration en surface atteint plusieurs centaines de ppm (< 500 ppm at.) et décroît en profondeur jusqu'à environ 160 ppm at.. Contrairement au 13C implanté, l'azote implanté migre à 500°C lorsque le graphite est fortement déstructuré (environ 8 dpa) alors qu'il reste stable pour un taux de déstructuration moindre (0,14 dpa). Les expériences montrent également le rôle synergique des excitations électroniques et de la température qui accélèrent le transport de l'azote vers la surface du graphite. Cette migration de l'azote semble se faire sous forme moléculaire d'espèces C-N, C=N voire C N. Après huit heures d'irradiation ces espèces ne sont toutefois pas ou peu relâchées et restent bloquées à la surface. L'étude du procédé de décontamination thermique en présence de vapeur d'eau a nécessité la mise en place d'un dispositif de thermogravimétrie couplé à un générateur de vapeur d'eau ainsi que l'optimisation des paramètres de l'étude. Les influences de la température (700°C et 900°C) et de l'humidité relative (50 % HR et 90 % HR) ont été testées à un débit de gaz humide fixe de 50 mL/min. Dans ces conditions, l'oxydation sélective du carbone implanté a été confirmée / The dismantling of UNGG reactors in France will generate about 23 000 tons of radioactive graphite wastes. To manage these wastes, the radiological inventory and data on radionuclides (RN) location and speciation should be determined. 14C was identified as an important RN for disposal due to its high initial activity and the risk of release of a mobile organic fraction in environment, after water ingress into the disposal. Hence, the objective of this thesis, carried out in partnership with EDF, is to implement experimental studies to simulate and evaluate the impact of temperature, irradiation and graphite radiolytic corrosion on the in reactor behavior of 14C and its precursor, 14N. The obtained data are then used to study the thermal decontamination of graphite in presence of water vapor. The experimental approach aims at simulating the presence of 14C and 14N by the respective ion implantation of 13C and 14N or 15N in virgin graphite. This study shows that, in the temperature range reached during reactor operation, (100-500°C) and without radiolytic corrosion, 13C is thermally stable whatever the initial graphite structure. Moreover, irradiation experiments were performed on heated graphite (500°C) put in contact with a gas representative of the radiolysed coolant gas. They show the synergistic role played by the oxidative species and the graphite structure disorder on the enhancement of 13C mobility resulting in the gasification of the graphite surface and/or the selective oxidation of 13C more weakly bound than 12C. Concerning the pristine nitrogen, we showed first that the surface concentration reaches several hundred ppm (<500 ppm at) and decreases at deeper depths to about 160 ppm at.. Unlike implanted 13C, implanted nitrogen migrates at 500 ° C when the graphite is highly disordered (about 8 dpa) while remaining stable for a lower disorder rate (0.14 dpa). Experiments also show the synergistic role by electronic excitations and temperature that accelerate the transport of nitrogen to the surface of the graphite. Nitrogen seems to migrate in the form of molecular species (CN, C = N or C N). After eight hours of irradiation these species are, however, little or not released and blocked at the surface. The study of the thermal decontamination of graphite in presence of water vapor was performed with a thermogravimetric device coupled to a steam water generator device. The influence of temperature (700 ° C and 900 ° C) and of the relative humidity (50% RH and 90% RH) was tested with a wet gas fixed flow rate of 50 ml/min. Under these conditions, the selective oxidation of implanted carbon was confirmed

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2017-05-16T13:12:17Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação - Tiago Lopes de Araújo - VERSÃO FINAL.pdf: 5049016 bytes, checksum: 19afff51e97123d7092ffd5fd7abcdca (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-16T13:12:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Dissertação - Tiago Lopes de Araújo - VERSÃO FINAL.pdf: 5049016 bytes, checksum: 19afff51e97123d7092ffd5fd7abcdca (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-29 / CNPQ / O poli(cloreto de vinila) (PVC) é empregado na fabricação de embalagens para alimentos e alguns produtos para saúde. Em geral, esses produtos precisam ser esterilizados antes de serem consumidos. Um dos métodos utilizados para esse fim é a irradiação gama. Todavia, esse tipo de radiação ionizante promove alterações na estrutura das cadeias poliméricas, afetando as propriedades do PVC em maior ou menor grau. Dessa forma, é necessário adicionar determinadas substâncias à resina para estabilizar o material contra a irradiação. O objetivo deste trabalho foi investigar o efeito da radiação gama em filmes de PVC e filmes de PVC contendo 1, 3 e 5 % (m/m) de pentóxido de nióbio (Nb2O5), que é um composto inerte, atóxico e biocompatível. Os filmes foram preparados pela técnica de solution casting, utilizando tetraidrofurano como solvente, e os corpos de prova foram irradiados nas doses de 25 e 50 kGy em temperatura ambiente. Foram utilizadas uma resina de PVC comercial obtida pelo processo de polimerização em suspensão, com massa molar média viscosimétrica igual a 201 kg/mol, e uma amostra de Nb2O5 cujas partículas apresentavam formato irregular, diâmetro volumétrico médio igual a 77 µm e estrutura cristalina monoclínica. Os efeitos da radiação gama e/ou do óxido na matriz polimérica foram avaliados através de viscosimetria de soluções diluídas, colorimetria, ensaio mecânico de tração, análise termogravimétrica (TGA) e espectroscopia no infravermelho médio por transformada de Fourier (FT-MIR). Os resultados da viscosimetria de soluções diluídas mostraram que o percentual de 5 % (m/m) de Nb2O5 conferiu proteção radiolítica ao polímero, diminuindo os eventos de cisão das cadeias principais em relação à matriz de PVC. De acordo com os ensaios colorimétricos, os filmes se tornaram mais escuros e mais amarelados, tanto em função do aumento do percentual de óxido quanto do aumento da dose de radiação. Para o mesmo material, a exposição à radiação gama não causou mudanças significativas nas propriedades mecânicas avaliadas pelo ensaio mecânico de tração (tensão na força máxima, módulo de Young e alongamento percentual na força máxima). Por outro lado, a presença do Nb2O5 nos sistemas contribuiu para diminuir o valor dessas propriedades. Os resultados da TGA mostraram que a radiação gama reduziu a estabilidade térmica dos materiais preparados, enquanto que o óxido não a alterou significativamente. A exposição dos filmes à radiação gama contribuiu para reduzir a energia de ativação do processo de desidrocloração e aumentar a energia de ativação do processo de quebra das sequências de polienos, embora o óxido não tenha catalisado nenhum dos dois processos. Algumas modificações químicas provocadas pela irradiação dos filmes foram detectadas pela espectroscopia FT-MIR, empregando a reflectância total atenuada para a aquisição dos espectros. Também foi constatado que o Nb2O5 não apresentou atividade antibacteriana frente à Escherichia coli, avaliada pelo ensaio de macrodiluição em caldo com agitação. / Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) is used in the manufacture of food packaging and some health products. In general, these products need to be sterilized before being consumed. One method for this purpose is gamma irradiation. However, this type of ionizing radiation promotes changes in the structure of polymeric chains affecting PVC properties a greater or lesser extent. Thus, it is necessary to add certain substances to the resin to stabilize the material against the irradiation. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of gamma radiation on PVC films and PVC films containing 1, 3 and 5 wt% of niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5), which is an inert, non-toxic and biocompatible compound. The films were prepared by solution casting technique using tetrahydrofuran as a solvent and the proof bodies was irradiated at doses of 25 and 50 kGy at room temperature. A commercial PVC resin obtained by suspension polymerization process with viscosimetric average molar mass equal to 201 kg/mol and a Nb2O5 sample whose particles had irregular shape, volume mean diameter of 77 μm and a monoclinic crystalline structure have been used. The effects of gamma radiation and/or oxide in polymer matrix were evaluated using dilute solution viscometry, colorimetry, mechanical tensile test, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier transform middle infrared (FT-MIR) spectroscopy. The results of dilute solution viscometry showed that the percentage of 5 wt% of Nb2O5 conferred radiolytic protection to the polymer, reducing main chain scission events in relation to PVC matrix. According to colorimetric test, the films became darker and yellowish, both due to the increase in oxide percentage as the increase of radiation dose. For the same material, exposure to gamma radiation did not cause significant changes in the mechanical properties evaluated by the mechanical tensile test (tensile strength, Young's modulus and percent elongation). Moreover, the presence of Nb2O5 in systems contributed to reduce the value of these properties. The results of TGA showed that gamma radiation reduced the thermal stability of prepared materials, while the oxide did not change it significantly. Exposure of the films to gamma radiation contributed to reduce the activation energy for the dehydrochlorination process and increase the activation energy for the breakdown process of polyenes sequences, although the oxide has not catalyzed neither processes. Some chemical changes caused by irradiation of the films were not detected by FT-MIR spectroscopy, using attenuated total reflectance to the spectra acquisition. It was also found that Nb2O5 did not presented antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, evaluated by broth macrodilution test with agitation.

Ce travail se situe dans le cadre des études sur la gestion des déchets graphites des centrales nucléaires Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz (UNGG) de première génération. Leur fonctionnement a généré 23000 tonnes de déchets graphites pour lesquels la loi du 28 juin 2006 prévoit un stockage dédié. La gestion à long terme de ces déchets nécessite de prendre en compte deux radionucléides principaux : le ^14C et le ^36Cl, principaux contributeurs de dose sur le long terme. Afin de consolider les données sur l'inventaire de ces radionucléides et de prévoir leur comportement lors de la resaturation en eau du site de stockage, il est nécessaire de disposer de données liées à leur distribution et à leur spéciation dans le graphite avant stockage. Ce travail a été centré sur l'étude du chlore. Il a eu pour objectif de retracer le comportement du 36Cl dans le graphite nucléaire durant “sa vie” en réacteur et, en particulier d'étudier les effets de la température et de la corrosion radiolytique de manière découplée. Nos résultats permettent de déduire qu'il se produit un relâchement rapide du 36Cl d'environ 20% dès les premières heures de fonctionnement du réacteur. Celui-ci est suivi par un relâchement beaucoup plus lent tout au long de la vie du réacteur. Nous avons identifié la présence de deux fractions distinctes de chlore correspondant à des formes chimiques différentes (n'ayant pas la même stabilité thermique) ou à deux localisations du chlore d'accessibilités différentes. Notre etude montre également que la corrosion radiolytique semble promouvoir le relâchement du chlore et cela quelle que soit la dose d'irradiation. La forme chimique du chlore est majoritairement organique. / This work concerns the dismantling of the UNGG reactor which have produced around 23 000 t of graphite wastes that ave to be disposed of according to the Frenche law of June 206. These wastes contain two long-lived radionuclides (^ 14C and ^36Cl) which are the main long term dose contributors. In order to get information about their inventory and their long term behaviour in case of water ingress into the repository, it is necessary to determine their location and speciation in the irradiated graphite after the reactor shutdown. This work concerns the study of ^36Cl. The main objective is to reproduce its behaviour during reactor operation. For that purpose, we have studied the effects of temperature and radiolytic corrosion indepently. Our results show a rapid release of around 20% ^36Cl during the first hours of reactor operation whereas a much slower release occurs afterwards. We have put in evidence two types of chlorine corresponding to two different chemical forms (of different thermal stabilities) or to two locations (of different accessibilities). We have also shown that the radiolytic corrosion seems to enhance chlorine release, whatever the irradiation dose. Moreover, the major chemical form of chlorine is inorganic.

Le travail présenté dans cette thèse, s’inscrit dans le domaine d'étude de l'interaction des rayonnements ionisants avec les liquides polaires. Bénéficiant de l’accélérateur d'électrons picoseconde ELYSE, les études ont été menées en utilisant les techniques de la radiolyse impulsionnelle associées à la spectrophotométrie d’absorption résolue en temps dans le domaine de la picoseconde. Ce travail est réparti sur deux chapitres distincts. Le premier aborde l’étude la variation temporelle du rendement radiolytique de l’électron solvaté dans l'eau et les alcools simples. Grâce au système de détection original monté sur l’accélérateur ELYSE, composé d’une lampe flash spécialement conçue pour cette détection et d’une streak-camera utilisée pour la première fois en spectroscopie d’absorption, il a été possible d'enregistrer la totalité du déclin du rendement radiolytique de l’électron solvaté d’une façon continue dans un intervalle de temps allant de la dizaine de picoseconde à quelques centaines de nanoseconde. La capture de l’électron solvaté par le méthylviologène, a été mise à profit pour réévaluer le coefficient d’extinction molaire du spectre d'absorption de l’électron solvaté dans l’eau et l’éthanol à partir des points isobestiques qui apparaissent à l'intersection des spectres d'absorption de l’électron solvaté qui disparaît et du méthylviologène qui se forme au cours de la réaction.Le deuxième chapitre est consacré à l’étude des carbonates organiques liquides, tels que le diméthyle carbonate (DMC), le diéthyle carbonate (DEC) et le propylène carbonate (PC). Cette famille de carbonate qui n’a jamais été étudiée auparavant par radiolyse pulsée, entre dans la composition des électrolytes des batteries notamment au lithium. Les études ont été focalisées sur le PC au vu de ces caractéristiques physico-chimiques, notamment sa constante diélectrique très élevée (64) et son très fort moment dipolaire de 4,9 D. Les premiers résultats ont été obtenus d’abord sur des solutions aqueuses contenant du propylène carbonate afin d'observer les réactions de réduction et d'oxydation du PC par les espèces radiolytiques de l'eau (électron solvaté et radicaux OH). Puis après l’identification (spectrale et cinétique) de l’espèce formée par interaction avec le radical OH comme étant le radical PC• résultant de l'abstraction d'un H de la molécule de PC et l’espèce formée par interaction avec l’électron aqueux comme étant l'anion PC-, d’autres mesures ont été effectuées dans le liquide pur ainsi qu’en présence de certains intercepteurs d’électrons (biphényle, anthracène, naphtalène). Elles ont permis d'accéder au rendement radiolytique de PC- ainsi qu'à l'évaluation de son potentiel redox. Les premiers résultats sur le DEC et le DMC sont aussi exposés dans cette partie, portant dans un premier lieu sur le solvant pur et puis en présence de biphényle. / This work is part of the study area of the interaction of radiation with polar liquids. Using the picosecond electron accelerator ELYSE, studies were conducted using the techniques of pulse radiolysis combined with absorption spectrophotometry Time-resolved in the field of a picosecond.This work is divided into two separate chapters. The first study addresses the temporal variation of the radiolytic yield of solvated electron in water and simple alcohols. Due to original detection system mounted on the accelerator ELYSE, composed of a flash lamp specifically designed for the detection and a streak-camera used for the first time in absorption spectroscopy, it was possible to record the time-dependent radiolytic yields of the solvated electron from ten picoseconds to a few hundred nanoseconds. The scavenging of the electron solvated by methyl viologen, was utilized to reevaluate the molar extinction coefficient of the absorption spectrum of solvated electron in water and ethanol from isobestic points which corresponds to the intersection of the absorption spectra of solvated electron which disappears and methyl viologen which is formed during the reaction.The second chapter is devoted to the study of liquid organic carbonates such as dimethyl carbonate (DMC), diethyl carbonate (DEC) and propylene carbonate (PC). This family of carbonate wich compose the electrolytes lithium batteries, has never been investigated by pulse radiolysis. The studies were focused on the PC in the light of these physicochemical characteristics, including its very high dielectric constant (64) and its strong dipole moment of 4.9 D. The first results were obtained on aqueous solutions containing propylene carbonate to observe the reactions of reduction and oxidation of PC by radiolytic species of water (solvated electron and OH radicals). Then, after the identification (spectral and kinetic) of the species formed by interaction with the OH radical as the PC• radical resulting from the abstraction of a H from the molecule of PC and the species formed by the interaction with electron as the anion aqueous PC-, other measurements were made in the pure liquid and in the presence of some electron interceptors (biphenyl, anthracene, naphthalene). They give access to the radiolytic yield of PC- and the evaluation of its redox potential. The first results of the DEC and the DMC are also outlined in this section, the pure solvent and then in the presence of biphenyl.

Résumé : Le contrôle de la chimie de l'eau dans un réacteur nucléaire refroidi à l'eau nécessite une compréhension détaillée des effets de la radiolysede l'eau afin de limiter la corrosion et la dégradation des matériaux par oxydation générée par les produits de cette radiolyse. Toutefois, la mesure directe de la chimie dans le cœur des réacteurs est extrêmement difficile, sinon impossible, en raison des conditions extrêmes de haute température et haute pression, et les champs d’irradiation mixtes neutrons/γ, qui ne sont pas compatibles avec l'instrumentation chimique normale. Pour ces raisons,des modèles théoriques et des simulations sur ordinateur sont essentielles pour la prédiction de la chimie sous rayonnement de l'eau de refroidissement dans le cœur et son impact sur les matériaux. Dans ce travail, des simulations Monte Carlo ont été utilisées pour calculer les rendements des principales espèces (e[indice supérieur -][indice inférieur aq], H[indice supérieur •], H[indice inférieur 2], [indice supérieur •]OH et H[indice inférieur 2]O[indice inférieur 2]) formées lors de la radiolyse de l’eau liquide neutre par des neutrons mono-énergétiques de 2 MeV à des températures entre 25 et 350 °C. Le choix des neutrons de 2 MeV comme énergie d'intérêt est représentatif du flux de neutrons rapides dans un réacteur. Pour l'eau légère, la contribution la plus significative à la radiolyse vient des quatre premières collisions des neutrons qui produisent, dans la majorité des cas, des protons avec des énergies de recul de ~1.264, 0.465, 0.171 et 0.063 MeV et des transferts d’énergie linéique (TEL) moyens respectivement de ~22, 43, 69et 76 keV/[micro]m. Par ailleurs, nous avons négligé les effets des radiations dus aux ions de recul de l’oxygène. Les rendements moyens finaux peuvent alors être estimés comme étant la somme des rendements résultant de l’action de ces protons après pondérations en fonction de l’énergie déposée. Les rendements ont été calculés à 10[indice supérieur -7], 10[indice supérieur -6] et 10[indice supérieur -5] s. Les valeurs obtenues sont en accord avec les données expérimentales disponibles. En comparant nos résultats avec les données obtenues pour les rayonnements à faible TEL (rayons γ de [indice supérieur 60]Co ou électrons rapides), nos rendements calculés pour les neutrons rapides ont montré une dépendance en température essentiellement similaire, mais avec des valeurs plus faibles pour les rendements en radicaux libres et des valeurs plus élevées pour les rendements moléculaires. Nous avons également utilisé les simulations Monte Carlo pour étudier l'existence de la chute rapide de la constante de vitesse de réaction de l'électron hydraté (e[indice supérieur -][indice inférieur aq]) sur lui-même – l’une des principales sources de formation de H[indice inférieur 2] – au-dessus de 150 °C. Cette dépendance en température a été observée expérimentalement en milieu alcalin par divers auteurs, mais jamais en milieu neutre. Lorsque cette baisse de la constante de vitesse d’auto-réaction de e[indice supérieur -][indice inférieur aq] est incluse dans nos codes de simulation, tant pour des rayonnements de bas TEL (grappes isolés) que de haut TEL (trajectoires cylindriques), g(H[indice inférieur 2]) montre une discontinuité marquée à la baisse à ~150°C, ce qui n'est pas observée expérimentalement. Les conséquences de la présence de cette discontinuité dans le rendement en H[indice inférieur 2] pour les rayonnements à bas et haut TEL sont discutées. Enfin, nous avons tenté d’expliquer l'augmentation – considérée comme anormale – du rendement en H[indice inférieur 2] en fonction de la température au-dessus de 200 °C par l’intervention de la réaction des atomes H[indice supérieur •] avec l'eau, préalablement proposée par Swiatła-Wojcik et Buxton en 2005. La constante de vitesse de cette réaction est toujours controversée. // Abstract : Controlling the water chemistry in a water-cooled nuclear power reactor requires understanding and mitigating the effects of water radiolysis to limit the corrosion and degradation of materials by oxidizing radiolysis products. However, direct measurement of the chemistry in reactor cores is extremely difficult due to the extreme conditions of high temperature, pressure, and mixed neutron/γ-radiation fields, which are not compatible with normal chemical instrumentation. For these reasons, theoretical models and computer simulations are essential for predicting the detailed radiation chemistry of the cooling water in the core and the impact on materials. Monte Carlo simulations were used to calculate the yields for the primary species (e[superscript -][subscript aq], H[superscript •], H[subscript 2], [superscript •]OH, and H[subscript 2]O[subscript 2]) formed from the radiolysis of neutral liquid water by mono-energetic 2-MeV neutrons and the mechanisms involved at temperatures between 25 and 350 °C. In this work, we chose 2-MeV neutron as our energy of interest since it is known as representative of a fast neutron flux in a nuclear reactor. For light water, for that chosen energy, the most significant contribution to the radiolysis comes from the first four neutron collisions that generate mostly ejected protons with energies of ~1.264, 0.465, 0.171, and 0.063 MeV, which had, at 25 °C, mean linear energy transfers (LETs) of ~22, 43, 69, and 76 keV/[micro]m, respectively. In this work, we simply neglected the radiation effects due to oxygen ion recoils. The average final fast neutron yields could be estimated as the sum of the yields for these protons after allowance was made for the appropriate weightings (by using the Eq (2) in Chapter 4) according to their deposited energy. Yields were calculated at 10[superscript -7], 10[superscript -6] and 10[superscript -5] s. Our computed yield agreed reasonably well with the available experimental data. By comparing our results with data obtained for low-LET radiation ([superscript 60]Co γ-rays or fast electrons), our computed yields for fast neutron radiation showed essentially similar temperature dependences over the range of temperature studied, but with lower values for yields of free radicals and higher values for molecular yields. In this work, we also used our Monte Carlo simulation to investigate the existence of drop of hydrated electron (e[superscript -][subscript aq]) self-reaction rate constant at 150 °C. One of the main sources of H[subscript 2] formation is the self-reaction of hydrated electrons. The temperature dependence of the rate constant of this reaction (k[subscript 1]), measured under alkaline conditions, reveals that the rate constant drops abruptly above ~150 °C. However, when this drop in the e[superscript -][subscript aq] self-reaction rate constant is included in our code for low (isolated spurs) and high (cylindrical tracks) linear energy transfer (LET), g(H[subscript 2]) shows a marked downward discontinuity at ~150 °C which is not observed experimentally. The consequences of the presence of this discontinuity in H[subscript 2] yield for both low and high LET radiation are discussed. Another reaction that might explain the anomalous increasing of H[subscript 2] yield with temperature is the reaction of H[superscript •] atoms with water previously proposed by Swiatla-Wojcik and Buxton (2005) whose rate constant is still in controversial.