Abstract The past few decades has seen increasing agreement identifying approach and avoidance systems as central concepts in the understanding of human behaviour and personality (Carver, 2005; Carver & Scheier, 2000; Elliot, 1999, 2005). The central focus of this thesis lies in exploring the approach system. The approach system focuses on managing appetitive behaviour and represents a general sensitivity to rewarding stimuli. This system is thought to be accompanied by behavioural tendencies towards such rewarding stimuli and consequently, positive outcomes (e.g., Gable, Reis, & Elliot, 2003). This thesis will examine the approach system as portrayed firstly via the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) as part of one of the most recent and influential personality theories; Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST; Gray, 1982; Gray & Mc Naughton, 1996; Pickering & Gray, 1999) and secondly, by means of the social cognitive model of goal orientation (Diefendorff & Mehta, 2007; Dweck, 1996; Elliot & Church, 1997). The two constructs of approach goal orientations which will be chiefly discussed in this thesis are mastery approach orientation and performance approach orientation. The main purpose of this thesis is to investigate these three approach constructs in interaction with situational cues and in the prediction of everyday life outcomes. Work context is an important example of everyday life situation; therefore, this thesis aims to investigate the interaction between the three approach constructs and rewarding climates (situational cues) in the prediction of work outcomes. This thesis therefore contains two parts; the first part will investigate the Behavioural Approach System (BAS) and the second part will investigate performance approach and mastery approach orientations. The first part contains two chapters -two self contained papers- and the second part contains three chapters -three self contained papersix Each paper form it’s own individual chapter. In each chapter, the controversies and ambiguities in theoretical and practical implications involved in the construct will be discussed. In addition, major findings as well as limitations and practical implications will be discussed at the end of each chapter. Following as introduction is a brief review of each chapter.

Zugl.: Bonn, Univ., Diss., 2008

This thesis details a continuing body of research investigating the contribution of personality to disordered eating and alcohol abuse in young women. There is growing evidence of high levels of reward sensitivity in women with both disorders, and high levels of punishment sensitivity in dysfunctional eating women. However, it is unlikely that personality alone accounts for the development of such dysfunctional behaviour. Two studies were conducted to further examine the contribution of reward and punishment sensitivity to these disorders. In the first study, 443 university women completed self-report measures of alcohol use, dysfunctional eating, reinforcement sensitivity, parental drinking, family environment and maternal eating. Reward and punishment sensitivity were better predictors of disordered behaviour than family factors, although maternal dysfunctional eating significantly increased the risk of daughters' dysfunctional eating. Punishment sensitive daughters of bulimic mothers reported the highest level of bulimic symptoms themselves. Punishment sensitivity also functioned as a partial pathway variable between family risk and disordered eating. Given the stronger contribution of personality to disordered behaviour, a second study was conducted in which 131 women completed behavioural tasks under conditions of reward and punishment. Performance on a computerised measure of punishment sensitivity was associated with greater levels of dysfunctional eating but not drinking. However, performance on a card-sorting task of reward sensitivity failed to correlate with self-reported reward sensitivity or disordered behaviour. It was concluded that an innate sensitivity to reward increases the risk of disorders characterised by strong approach tendencies, whilst high punishment sensitivity, perhaps due to a chaotic family, increases the risk of dysfunctional eating, particularly daughters of eating disordered mothers.

The primary focus of this thesis was to examine the relationship of reward sensitivity and outcome expectancies, variables traditionally associated with alcohol use, to cannabis use behaviour and to explore the relationship of affect and locus of control to alcohol and cannabis use. It was hypothesised that hazardous alcohol and cannabis use would be related to higher levels of reward sensitivity and to the endorsement of more positive outcome expectancies. It was also hypothesised that positive outcome expectancies would mediate the relationship between reward sensitivity and cannabis use, and that the relationship between reward sensitivity and both alcohol and cannabis use would be moderated by punishment sensitivity. No specific hypotheses were formulated for the relationship of negative outcome expectancies, affect and locus of control of reinforcement to substance use. A total of 465 young adults aged between 18 and 35 years completed a questionnaire which assessed substance use patterns, reward and punishment sensitivity, outcome expectancies, locus of control, and affect. Results indicated that higher levels of reward sensitivity reliably distinguished hazardous from non-hazardous alcohol and cannabis users as well as cannabis users from cannabis non-users. The relationship between reward sensitivity and substance use was partially mediated by outcome expectancies, but not moderated by punishment sensitivity. An exploratory factor analysis demonstrated a high rate of concordance between alcohol and cannabis outcome expectancies. Locus of control of reinforcement was found to be unrelated to alcohol and cannabis use behaviour. There was little commonality in the relationship of sensitivity to punishment, negative outcome expectancies, and affect to alcohol and cannabis use. The second focus of this thesis was to pilot an intervention aimed at reducing alcohol use via the challenging of expectations regarding the rewarding outcomes associated with alcohol use in a group of young adult Australian males. A three session intervention was completed by three males aged between 19 and 31 years. The results demonstrated no reduction in hazardous alcohol use or global positive alcohol outcome expectancies at the completion of the intervention program or at a 3-month follow-up. Furthermore, there was no reduction in expectancies of increased sexual interest for any of the participants at the 3-month follow-up compared to baseline, despite a reduction in these expectancies for one of the three participants at the completion of the intervention. A reduction in monthly drinking levels and in expectancies of increased confidence compared to baseline was noted for two of the three participants at the 3-month follow-up. It was concluded overall that there is consistency between the relationships of reward sensitivity and positive outcome expectancies to alcohol and cannabis use and that outcome expectancies may be a proximal mechanism through which reward sensitivity influences alcohol and cannabis use. It was further concluded that whilst causal inferences regarding the effectiveness of the intervention could not be made, the results provide some evidence for the usefulness of this treatment in changing a proportion of the studied outcomes. This potentially provides an incentive for future controlled design research in larger samples and with alternate substances.

The Behavioral Activation System (BAS) has been described as playing a central role in approach motivation and reward sensitivity (Gray, 1970). Self-report measures of BAS (e.g., Carver & White, 1994) have been used to index BAS activity, with higher scores interpreted as indicating greater BAS activity (e.g., Hundt et al., 2008). However, Beauchaine and colleagues (e.g., Brenner, Beauchaine, & Sylvers, 2005) have challenged this view, noting psychophysiological and neuroimaging evidence showing that externalizing behaviors are associated with reduced BAS functioning. Furthermore, global self-reported BAS scores are often used to index approach behavior, despite evidence that two main BAS traits, impulsivity and reward reactivity, are psychometrically distinct (Smillie et al., 2006). The present study tested a measurement model of these proposed components of BAS, as well as relationships between self-report and psychophysiological BAS indices. A large undergraduate student sample completed self-report indices (N=599) and a smaller subsample also completed psychophysiological (N=18) indices of BAS-related constructs. As hypothesized, a two-factor model with impulsivity and reward reactivity as separate, correlated constructs demonstrated better model fit than a one-factor alternative model. Associations between psychophysiological indices of BAS and indices of reward reactivity and impulsivity were mixed. Implications regarding future measurement of BAS and autonomic response to reward are discussed. / Master of Science

It is well established that methadone maintenance (MM) reduces but does not eliminate the self-administration of other illicit drugs. For those on MM, there is considerable variation in consumption patterns, route of heroin administration, additional non-opioid substances routinely administered and the clinical disorders associated with these patterns of use. While there is a large literature base documenting these phenomena, studies have been almost exclusively descriptive in nature, with little attempt to develop a theoretical model in which to understand such use. In the following thesis, a model proposed by Gray was tested, the Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST). This biopsychosocial model broadly describes two action tendencies; approach (Behavioural Activation System) and avoidance or withdrawal (Flight Fight Freeze System and the Behavioural Inhibition System). The model proposes that a heightened sensitivity to punishment underlies anxiety disorders. Conversely, a heightened sensitivity to rewarding stimuli may predispose some individuals to engage in highly rewarding behaviour and is associated with conduct disorder and antisocial personality disorder. According to the Joint Subsystems Hypothesis, these personality styles are mutually dependent, whereby BIS and BAS interact to influence reward mediated and punishment mediated behaviours. Based on Gray's model, this thesis tests whether opiate dependent individuals with heightened sensitivity to punishment are more likely to use anxiolytic drugs (such as benzodiazepines), and individuals with heightened reward sensitivity will show a preference for substances that have high reward potential (such as stimulants). At time one, the participant sample (N= 120) comprised 71 males (59%) and 49 females who were opioid dependent and recruitment took place over an eight-month period in two city opioid replacement clinics. A range of measures was administered to assess substance use, mood, anxiety and the personality dimensions of reward sensitivity and punishment sensitivity, with substance use again measured at three months. Results of the first study suggested that a large proportion of the variance was accounted for by personality within the models. A total of 98 participants (81%) participated in the 12-week follow-up study. Sensitivity to punishment and reward significantly predicted drug preference. Although psychopathology symptoms were not able to moderate the relationship between personality and drug use, anxiety symptoms negatively mediated the relationship between punishment sensitivity and anxiolytic use, whereby the relationship became non-significant. In contrast, sensitivity to reward remained the strongest predictor of amphetamine use over antisocial characteristics. Individual differences were not able to predict treatment retention nor susceptibility to relapse during a 12-week initiation to a MM programme.

Features of impulsivity underlie multiple psychological disorders. The body of work examining impulsivity has largely focussed on self-report measurement and has incorporated psychological constructs without reference to the broader biological factors that may influence impulsive behaviour. Two studies were conducted to examine whether environmental stress and genetic status associated with dopaminergic and serotonergic function (DRD2, ANKK1 and 5HT2AR genotypes) were predictive of dimensions of impulsivity and risky behaviour (alcohol use). The two studies used a multi-method approach in a non-clinical community sample of young adults (aged 17-25 years). Dopamine is integral to the two leading theories of impulsive personality, Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Cloninger's Psychobiological model of personality. Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward reinforcement circuits in the brain. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 gene (also referred to as TaqIA of the DRD2 gene region) and the CC genotype of the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene have both been associated with reduced D2 dopamine receptor density in key structures linked to brain reward. In addition, a strong body of evidence implicates their involvement in a number of clinical disorders associated with impulsivity. Serotonin function has also been associated with impulsivity in Cloninger's theory and there is also evidence of associations of two polymorphisms of the 2A serotonin receptor gene (5HT2AR T102C and -1438A/G SNPs) with impulsivity. Acute and chronic forms of stress are also important correlates of impulsive behaviour and the two studies directly examined the relationship between genotype, stress and impulsivity. Study 1 (N=180) utilised a cross-sectional design and examined interactions between these polymorphisms and chronic stress exposure on key impulsivity dimensions of reward sensitivity, Novelty Seeking and rash impulsiveness. Participants completed psychological questionnaires measuring chronic stress, dimensions of impulsivity, mood and substance use and provided mouth swab samples of buccal mucosal cells for DNA analysis. The study confirmed the association between A1 and CC allelic status and chronic stress being associated with harm avoidance and sensitivity to punishment. This suggests a role for both dopamine and background stress in impulsive behaviour. Study 2 (N=73) built upon this questionnaire research in the laboratory by utilising experimental psychological paradigms of impulsive behaviour and experimentally manipulating acute stress. Study 2 employed a mixed experimental design with a sub-sample of those studied in the cross-sectional sample. These behavioural paradigms included pre- and post- stress induction administration of the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (capturing behavioural approach in the presence of reward cues, presumed to reflect reward sensitivity) and post-induction delay discounting and response inhibition measures. Study 2 confirmed the role of one of the two dopamine-related polymorphisms, with those with A1+ allelic status demonstrating lower reward responsiveness prior to rest or stress induction, which was overcome in the second administration of this task, independent of environment. A1+ allelic individuals also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition independent of stress, further confirming the association between A1+ allelic status and impulsivity. Those with CC allelic status showed an increase in reward responsiveness only in the stress induction condition. Together, results from the two studies inform the development of a multidimensional model of impulsivity that captures gene-environment influences on discrete aspects of impulsive personality and behaviour. Further refinement of this model may lead to the development of more effective customised prevention and treatment interventions for clinically disordered impulsivity. The implications of dopaminergic systems and stress in understanding disorders such as ADHD and substance dependence are discussed.

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Social ångeststörning (SAD) är ett ångestsyndrom som orsakar stor funktionsnedsättning och försämrad livskvalitet. I föreliggande studie presenteras förklaringsmodeller till SAD med fokus på temperamentsforskning och reinforcement sensitivity theory (RST). Syftet var att genom explorativ faktoranalys identifiera latenta variabler i frågeformuläret ”Hur man var som barn” (HMVSB), som administrerats i en klinisk population (n= 100) och i en kontrollgrupp (n= 246). Faktoranalysen extraherade två faktorer som döptes till beteendeinhibering (BI) respektive beteendeaktivering (BA). Ett andra syfte var att jämföra den kliniska populationen med kontrollgruppen avseende de extraherade faktorerna. Resultaten visade att HMVSB uppvisade god intern konsistens och tillfredsställande instrumentell reliabilitet. Vissa signifikanta korrelationer mellan HMVSB och jämförda skattningsformulär vid SAD erhölls. Gruppjämförelserna visade att den kliniska gruppen var signifikant mer beteendeinhiberad och mer beteendeaktiverad som barn. En subgrupp med generaliserad SAD var både signifikant mer beteendeaktiverad och beteendeinhiberad som barn. Subgruppen med specifik SAD skilde sig ej signifikant från kontrollgruppen. Studien manar till att beakta temperamentala faktorer vid SAD där kombinationen hög BI och hög BA skulle kunna korrelera med allvarligare klinisk bild.