Rembrandt's "Homer" in the Mauritshuis in The Hague is but one work of three executed for the Italian nobleman, Don Antonio Ruffo of Messinao Ruffo had previously received an "Aristotle" from Rembrandt in 1654. At some time between 1653 and 1661, it was decided to supplement this painting with the "Homer" and an "Alexander". That Rembrandt should receive such a commission from a foreign patron at a time when his style was beginning to be outmoded by an emerging classicism is significant indeed. There are many problems that concern the/-painting of "Homer" itself. One of the first is in determining what Rembrandt's original composition look like since the "Homer" has been drastically reduced in size, apparently the result of damage by fire. Then there are questions concerning what format did Rembrandt choose and what visual precedents was he following for his portrayal of Homer. Some tentative answers can be found by examining two drawings attributed to Rembrandt, "Homer Reciting His Verses" (Ben.no.913) and "Homer Dictating to a Scribe" (Ben.no.l066), and a painting of Homer by one of Rembrandt's most faithful pupils, Aert de Gelder. All these sources, however, suggest rather than define possible solutions as to how the "Homer" originally appeared. For the figure of Homer himself, one can be more definite. Rembrandt turned to an antique bust, known as the Hellenistic, Blind Type, of which he at least owned a cast (Urk.l69, no.l63). Problems also arise when one views the "Homer" in the context of the entire commission. Were the three paintings commissioned at the same time and who was responsible for their selection, Rembrandt or Ruffo? What are the historical and iconological reasons for making such a combination? Partial answers can be obtained by a careful and cautious reading of the documents. The evidence suggests that Rembrandt not Ruffo should be credited with choosing all the subjects or at the very least the "Aristotle". To answer why the three should be combined, a close reading of Aristotle's Poetics and Plutarch's Alexander would provide sound historical reasons. Many Rembrandt scholars have offered various iconological interpretations of which, I feel, Held's for the "Aristotle" and Valentiner's for the entire commission are the most conclusive. Their interpretations depend largely on what Homer meant to Rembrandt himself. Homer generally in the seventeenth century was considered as the great teacher and inspired seer whose work, if properly read, would lead men to a righteous and virtuous life. Homeric allegoresis began in antiquity as a defense against Platonic criticism and continued into the seventeenth century. Although Rembrandt may not have been too familiar with the actual text of the Homeric poems, he would certainly have been aware of Homer's reputation since the Dutch scholars were amongst his strongest supporters. It was Homer the man rather than his work that interested Rembrandt. Homer's image as the blind seer, the great teacher, and the 'almost' Christian prophet would have appealed to Rembrandt. The fact that Homer was blind, a theme inherent in much of Rembrandt's work, would only have served to increase this interest. In essence, it was the nature of Homer's blindness that made him, for Rembrandt and the seventeenth century, the great moral educator and the divine prophet. / Arts, Faculty of / Art History, Visual Art and Theory, Department of / Graduate

Rembrandt's influence on the medium of printmaking can only be explained through his methodology in the production of his images. Experimentation is the key word to describe his evolution in style as he mastered the skills necessary to achieve his desired result. This paper will focus on this experimental attitude towards the medium and the subsequent inspiration it gave to me and other artists. Also included is a technical and stylistic comparison of various etchings by Rembrandt and my six prints that serve as a visual illustration and personal interpretation of the artist's method. My research consisted of the consultation of many texts that aided in my supportive argument and eventual conclusion that Rembrandt created his place in history as an avant-garde in printmaking through his willingness to experiment with various methods in the production of his images.

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Très expérimentales, les gravures de Rembrandt ont suscité l’étonnement dès son époque. Les étudier à la lumière de la tradition du sublime aide à dégager la dynamique de la pensée du graveur, tout en offrant à cette tradition l’occasion de se renouveler. Ainsi notre étude confronte l’œuvre gravée de Rembrandt à trois conceptions du sublime. Le sublime poétique de Longin, qui incite le spectateur à cultiver ses dons à l’exemple des héros antiques. Le sublime chrétien comme lien entre l’abaissement du divin et l’élévation de l’homme. Et enfin le sublime du sentiment esthétique de Burke, qui explore l’expérience de la terreur provoquée par l’obscurité. Cette confrontation est utile pour comprendre la manière dont l’image réussit à communiquer la force des passions, en conquérant son autonomie par rapport au texte. Mais la quête spirituelle de Rembrandt, qui menace d’épuiser les possibilités de son médium, constitue une mise à l’épreuve de la notion de sublime. A l’image du divin qui s’est perdu dans le sensible, Rembrandt obscurcit extrêmement ses eaux-fortes, au risque de leur faire perdre toute force d’élévation, voire toute puissance d’évocation. Le sublime ne peut plus se penser que sur le mode du retrait, voire de la disparition. Le spectateur est incité à recueillir ses traces pour devenir témoin. / In his own day, Rembrandt’s etchings had aroused surprise in his contemporaries owing to their experimental quality. To study these works in the light of the philosophical tradition of the sublime helps to bring forth the dynamics of the artist’s thought while allowing this tradition to renew itself. Thus does our study confront Rembrandt’s etchings with three conceptions of the sublime: the poetic sublime of Longinus which urges one to cultivate one’s gifts, following the examples of the heroes of the ancient world; the Christian conception of the sublime, as a link between the descent of the divine and the spiritual elevation of man; and lastly, Burke’s aesthetic concept of the sublime, which explores the experience of terror produced by obscurity. This confrontation is useful in understanding the way in which a pictorial representation can succeed in communicating the force of passions and thereby in acquiring its autonomy from the written word. Yet Rembrandt’s spiritual quest, which threatens to exhaust the possibilities of his artistic medium, puts to the test the very notion of the sublime. Mirroring the loss of divinity that follows its descent into the flesh, Rembrandt darkens his etchings to the extreme, at the risk of them losing their uplifting and even their evocative power. As a result, the sublime can no more be perceived but in its very receding and at times total withdrawal. The viewer is moved to collecting its marks and becoming its witness.

« Graveur-illustrateur », Léopold Flameng incarne dans la seconde moitié du xixe siècle un rapprochement entre les activités de graveur de reproduction et d’illustrateur original. Formé à la gravure « classique » par Luigi Calamatta, à l’Ecole des beaux-arts de Bruxelles, il devint un aquafortiste et buriniste de grande réputation à partir des années 1860, traduisant les maîtres et spécialement Rembrandt. Œuvrant à la Gazette des beaux-arts, à L’Artiste, à L’Art, il collabora aussi avec des revues étrangères et travailla pour des éditeurs d’estampes comme Goupil. Néanmoins, Léopold Flameng ne délaissa pas une activité de créateur, qu’il cultiva en pratiquant l’illustration originale. Dessinant pour Ducrocq, Jouaust ou Hetzel, Flameng est un des rares graveurs de métier à réussir, dans la seconde moitié du xixe siècle, une carrière d’illustrateur à succès face à la dominance des peintres.Cette thèse qui s’appuie sur un ample corpus d’œuvres et sur une correspondance et des archives en grande partie inédites, cherche à définir le « graveur-illustrateur », type particulier d’illustrateur venu non de la peinture mais de la gravure. Tandis qu’une première partie s’attache à présenter le graveur de reproduction, en s’attardant notamment sur son rôle dans la dynamique de l’eau-forte à partir des années 1850 en France, une deuxième partie vise à montrer le glissement de l’artiste vers l’illustration originale. Il s’agit d’en expliciter les raisons et de comprendre un paradoxe : comment Léopold Flameng a pu trouver dans l’illustration originale un terrain de liberté créative, compte tenu des nombreuses contraintes qui pèsent sur l’artiste ? Enfin, une dernière partie explore les réseaux personnels et professionnels de Flameng, cherchant à étudier sa relation avec les divers intermédiaires et collègues entourant le graveur et l’illustrateur, et à analyser la distribution et la réception de son œuvre auprès du public. L’objectif de cette thèse est donc de faire émerger une typologie particulière d’illustrateur, en s’appuyant à la fois sur Léopold Flameng et sur les évolutions notables qui touchent le monde de l’estampe au milieu du xixe siècle et qui impliquent, chez la plupart des graveurs, de nécessaires adaptations à un nouveau contexte. / "Engraver-illustrator", Leopold Flameng embodies in the second half of the nineteenth century a reconciliation between the activities of reproductive engraver and of original illustrator.Trained in "classical" engraving by Luigi Calamatta at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, he became a renowned etcher and engraver from the 1860s, translating the masters, especially Rembrandt. Working in the Gazette des Beaux-Arts, L'Artiste, L’Art, he also collaborated with foreign magazines and worked for prints publishers like Goupil.Nevertheless, Leopold Flameng did not abandon a creative activity, which he cultivated by practicing the original illustration.Drawing for Ducrocq, Jouaust or Hetzel, Flameng is one of the few professional engraver to succeed in the second half of the nineteenth century, a successful illustrator career in the face of the dominance of painters.This thesis, which is based on a large corpus of works and a correspondence and archives largely unpublished, seeks to define the "engraver-illustrator", a particular type of illustrator who came not from painting but from engraving.While the first part is devoted to presenting the reproductive engraver, focusing in particular on its role in the dynamics of etching from the 1850s in France, a second part aims to show the shift of the artist to the original illustration. It is a matter of explaining the reasons for this, and of understanding a paradox : How could Leopold Flameng find in the original illustration a field of creative freedom, given the many constraints that weigh on the artist ?Finally, the last part explores the personal and professional networks of Flameng, seeking to study his relationship with the various intermediaries and colleagues surrounding the engraver and the illustrator, and to analyze the distribution and reception of his work among the public.The objective of this thesis is thus to bring out a particular typology of illustrator, relying both on Leopold Flameng and on the significant evolutions that affect the world of printmaking in the middle of the nineteenth century and which imply, in most of the engravers, of necessary adaptations to a new context

Vi omges ständigt av ljus i vår vardag, det finns naturligt ljus samt artificiellt. Även under de grå dagarna finns det ljus och dess närvaro är alltid där även om den inte alltid är som klarast. I detta kandidatarbete beskrivs ljuset ur olika synvinklar, men framförallt hur Rembrandt och impressionisterna i sina konstverk använt ljuset i sitt skapande. För att få en bredare syn på vår process tar vi hjälp av de två begreppen “fluid” och “fire” som kommer från aktör-nätverksteori (ANT). Utifrån den teoretiska delen av arbetet skapas en gestaltning i form av digitala illustrationer med budskapet “våga vara dig själv”. Detta görs i form av olika porträtt där ljuset ligger i fokus inte bara i ljussättningen utan även som en helhet. Med hjälp av den teoretiska och praktiska delen av kandidatarbetet har det framgått att frågeställningen “Hur kan man med illusionen av ljus skapa ett porträtt med digitala medier?” kan besvaras på olika vis, då vi illustrerat ljuset med olika uttrycksätt och visuella språk. / We are constantly surrounded by light in our daily lives, there’s natural and artificial light. During cloudy days there is light and it’s presence is always there even if it’s not the clearest. In this bachelor thesis we examine the light from different angles, but above all how Rembrandt and the impressionists in their artwork used the light. To get a broader view of our process, we use the two terms "fluid" and "fire" from actor-network theory (ANT). Based on the theoretical part of our work, we created digital illustrations with the message “Dare to be yourself”. This is done in the form of various portraits, where the light is in focus not only in the lighting but also as a whole. With the help of the theoretical and practical part of the bachelor thesis we are shown that the question "How can one with the illusion of light create a portrait with digital media?" can be answered in different ways, as we illustrate light with different expressions and visual languages.

Issued also as thesis, Utrecht. / Summary in English. Includes bibliographical references (p. 294-308).

Ruwe manier describes loose painting, characterized by visible brushwork that is casually or even crudely exposed. Although Rembrandt did not invent ruwe manier, his late style is practically synonymous with highly developed surface texture. The goal of this study is to help develop historical context for understanding Rembrandt’s characteristic approach to thick paint, as well as to attempt to locate what is so distinctive about Rembrandt’s expressive brushwork. The ruwe manier is particularly prominent in Rembrandt’s 1658 Self-Portrait housed in the Frick Collection in New York City. The Frick Self-Portrait thus operates as a case study and as a point of departure from which to discuss notions of the rough manner in this period. Through detailed formal analysis and primary texts, I propose how the emotional impact of impasto, as understood in Rembrandt’s time, might have served as motivation for Rembrandt’s painting approach in his later years. In the last section, I apply these discussions about Rembrandt’s ruwe manier to a current neuroscience research about visual and tactile perception. This final, exploratory chapter is more of an inquiry of neuroaesthetic methodology than of Rembrandt’s painting. I ultimately suggest that the assertion of self is manifest not only in the Rembrandt’s presentation of himself as a subject, but also as it is imbued on a conscious and fundamental level—in the very tactility of the paint itself. / text

Art leaves the viewer with an aesthetic experience. Through art, "a truth is experienced that we cannot attain in any other way" (Gadamer 1975: xxii-xxiii). Traditional sociological methods of studying art negate both this experience and the concept of aesthetics altogether. This thesis attempts to find a method to approach the sociological study of aesthetics that acknowledges its existence and the aesthetic experience by studying the work of sociological founder, George Simmel, in his recently translated monograph Rembrandt: An Essay in the Philosophy of Art. Even though it has recently been translated into English, among German-speakers, it was the most circulated of his texts in his lifetime. An analysis of the text is included in this thesis. The editors forewarn that the text is 'reactionary' and follows automatic thinking processes, but upon reading Simmel's essay it appears that the term reactionary may not be appropriate. Instead, Simmel is moved by the work of Rembrandt, which is more than undergoing an automatic reactionary process because it requires the utilization of one's faculties. Simmel's insight to his formalistic sociology originated with these initial impressions toward art, which he finally converted to writing close to the end of his life. His text explains that all intellectual achievement is partly fashioning, and partly creating. The concept of art can be reframed to include all activity in the 'creative' side of this dichotomy. Thus, the method to study "The Sociology of Aesthetics" is to first be moved by art. This process can be used to guide innovations and discoveries in other fields as well.

Although Rembrandt van Rijn owned over eighty pieces of sculpture, studies regarding his use of the collection are in short supply and tend to be either formal, tracing the few images of sculpture in Rembrandt's oeuvre to those listed in his 1656 bankruptcy inventory, or else they refer to his use of classical sculpture in general terms as an inspiration for his history paintings. This study shifts emphasis from formal and iconographic issues to Rembrandt's studio practices and working methods. It examines his manipulation of the border between reality and illusion (what Ovid termed "the art that conceals art"): his effort to "incarnate" his sculptural sources by wrapping them in textiles and giving them the appearance of flesh. Seventeenth-century theory provides the foundation for this hypothesis: artists/theorists such as Karl van Mander, Peter Paul Rubens, and Philips Angel promoted the judicious use of sculpture and encouraged artists to transform its marmoreal surface into pliant flesh; Van Mander advised painters to make the thin garments of classical statues more appropriate for Northern paintings by wrapping them in woolen cloth; he also encouraged artists to "steal arms, legs, hands, and feet" from works of art and synthesize them into new creations. Esteemed precedents also support the hypothesis: recent studies of Cornelis Cornelius van Haarlem, Hendrick Goltzius, and Bartholomeus Spranger examined their use of Renaissance bronzes, an inexpensive and plentiful source that Rembrandt also seems to have tapped. Paragone, a popular debate in both Amsterdam and Leiden, is another facet of this study. Empirical observations reveal patterns in Rembrandt's use of sculpture: several etchings of his studio show busts adorned with hats or wrapped in fabric (a practice also described in a seventeenth-century poem about Rembrandt); a number of his head studies, genre, and history paintings suggest that he used busts of Roman emperors for models. The less subtle artistry of his students and his colleague Jan Lievens also exposes their use of clothed statues and thereby corroborates the hypothesis that Rembrandt's reliance on sculpture for models was more prevalent and artful (in the sense of covert) than has previously been noted. / Art History