The long line of representation studies posits that proportional representation systems, with larger electoral districts, have a representational advantage over majoritarian systems. However, over the last decade, scholars have challenged this longstanding nding (Blais & Bodet 2006, Golder & Stramski 2007). Additionally, Golder & Stramski (2007) initiated a debate over the conceptualization and measurement of congruence, arguing that the most common practice of assessing congruence is flawed. They call for an improved measure of congruence. In the light of this recent debates, the purpose of this thesis is to inspect the relationship between institutional designs and political representation in the European context, using Voting Advice Application generated data. Three main research questions are explored. The first question relates to institutional designs such as district magnitude, and electoral system characteristics such as disproportionality or polarization, investigating the conditions necessary for a country to present high levels of congruence between its citizens and their representatives. Looking at party level characteristics, I will investigate what are the effects of niche party status and governmental status on issue congruence in European democracies? Last but not least, what is the role of individual characteristics? These questions will be addressed by studying the impact of different features of electoral systems, party and individual characteristics have on political representation conceptualized as issue congruence. Congruence is measured as the degree of matching of the common policy preferences of citizens and parties as indicated by the Voting Advice Applications EU Pro filer 2009 and EUvox 2014. The present work contributes to the stream of research on political representation understood as congruence. The strength of this work lays in its comparative approach, and the use of VAA generated data to measure congruence. While most of the studies on political representation using congruence focus on the Left-Right dimension, this thesis uses the concept of issue congruence. Based on the 28 common statements of the VAA tool, the measure of congruence is metric-free, allowing for cross-country comparisons. Although there is a wide range of research on the effects of electoral systems on political representation, most of these studies are limited in their use of comparative approaches. The lack of extensive comparative research on issue congruence is due to insufficient data. The 2009 EU Profi ler and 2014 EUvox address this issue, providing the necessary framework for testing the predictors of congruence at a system, party and individual level. Political representation can be operationalized through congruence, as the distance between the citizen and the representative (Huber & Powell 1994, Powell 2004). Issue congruence is the correspondence between party electorates and their representatives across a set of salient policy dimensions (Powell 2004). VAA generated data provides a new means of measuring congruence. I propose two new measures of congruence, based on the distance between the citizen and the party the citizen intends to vote for. Unlike other comparative studies that measure congruence with the help of the Left-Right scale, the present work focuses on issue policies. Issue congruence is the outcome of the match between the citizen and the party she intends to vote for on a series of 28 and 22 political statements. Additionally, the focus on issue congruence is important because issue representation is mostly inferred from the alternative interpretations of congruence. The measures of issue congruence therefore contribute to a better understanding of political representation in the EU political space, tackling the recurrent crisis of representation.

都市更新條例於民國87年11月發佈實施至今已九年，但成果有限，其主要問題在於人與資訊不足。都市更新條例規定土地及合法建築物所有權人（下稱地主）得委託都市更新事業機構擔任實施者實施都市更新事業，惟都市更新體系並無完整規範「地主－實施者」委託實施之配套機制，產生委託實施雙方因資訊不完全、不對稱及不確定環境因素，致無法全盤掌握未來整合推動可能發生的狀況下，基於各自利害關係考量，產生投機主義，形成「隱藏與逆選擇」的對立角色，衍生高昂的交易成本，影響都市更新事業整合推展，故亟需就「委託實施」課題加以建構機制規範之必要。 本研究旨就都市更新事業重建「推動方式與實務層面」為主題，以都市更新事業委託發起至實施完成之過程為軸線，經由（1）以交易成本及代理理論為基礎的印證，（2）對都市更新法制程序與規範的認知、（3）對政府、地主及實施者等三個參與主體特性的瞭解、（4）對民間推動實務與現行法制規範存在相互影響造成推動障礙的探討、（5）對實施推動的交易成本內容分析等等相關文獻面、法制面、實務面、個案案例，以及對參與推動都市更新事業人士進行問卷調查訪問之綜合研究可知：地主與政府本身皆存在相關影響都市更新事業推動的問題，以及地主對實施者可能存在疑慮的委託實施代理問題。 本研究針對影響委託實施都市更新事業推動的問題，嘗試建構可為地主提供服務並兼顧實施者利益的「整合代理機制」，包含（1）實施者實施需具備之資格條件規範、（2）地主委託實施內容與實施者作業規範等二項機制，並建議政府從「政策」、「法制」、「資訊」、「推動」、「執行」等五個構面提供配套措施，協助排除推動障礙。 本研究冀期建構「整合代理機制」，強化都市更新體系委託實施機制內涵，提供地主與實施者雙方作為委託實施的推動模式，並透過市場機制促進多元實施者參與機會，公開揭露都市更新資訊，消彌雙方認知差距，降低或消除都市更新事業交易成本及解決代理問題，加速建立都市更新推動共識及委託實施契約簽訂，落實履行與監督控管，以促進民間參與都市更新事業推動。 / It has been nine years since the Urban Renewal Act took effect in November 1998. Except for limited accomplishment, the major problems it encountered are inadequate manpower and insufficient information. The Act requires the owner (landowner for short) of the land and legal buildings entrusting property to an urban renewal business or agency as an enforcer or entrusted agent to carry out the renewal project. Yet, the urban renewal system lacks a complete package of standards or mechanism for the practice of “landowner—enforcer” entrustment relationship; due to incomplete, asymmetric and uncertain supply of information, both sides are unable to have an overall control of any possible incident in future integrated actions. Because of different concern, this entrustment relationship creates opportunism in which produces confronting positions of “concealment and adverse-selection”; as a result of the negative atmosphere in the relationship, the operation needs more transaction cost which has great effect on the integrated development of urban renewal project. Therefore, it is essential to establish a mechanism regulating the issue of “entrusted enforcement”. Based on the subject of “promotion mode and practice level” in urban renewal and reconstruction, this study intends to examine the process of urban renewal from the beginning of entrustment relationship to its completion, including (1) demonstration on the basis of transaction cost and representation theory; (2) comprehending the procedures and standards in urban renewal legal system; (3) understanding the characteristics of three participants, namely government, landowner and the enforcer; (4) investigating the obstacles caused by the conflict between promotional practices in non-government agency and the existing regulations; (5) analyzing the transaction cost of promotion in terms of literature review, legal system, practice, individual case and a questionnaire survey on the person who participate in urban renewal project. Research results show: problems of promoting urban renewal exist on both sides of landowner and government; the landowners also may have doubts for the enforcer regarding the representation issue of entrusted enforcement. This study focuses on the problems encountered when promoting the entrusted enforcement of urban renewal business and intends to construct an “integrated representation mechanism” which provides service to landowner and, on the other hand, also consider the benefit of enforcer, including (1) the qualification, terms and standards of the enforcer; (2) the entrusted task content from landowners, and the operational standards of the enforcer. We also propose necessary measures in five aspects as follows: “policy”, “legal system”, “information”, “promotion”, “implementation” for government so as to eliminate obstacles of promotion. We hope to construct an “integrated representation mechanism” and strengthen the mechanism content of the entrusted enforcement in urban renewal system; this design aims to provide landowner and enforcer a promotional model in entrusted enforcement, increase diverse participation through market mechanism, publicly disclose urban renewal information, eliminate cognitive discrepancy on both sides, reduce or remove transaction cost for urban renewal business and resolve the issues of representation, increase common sense on urban renewal promotion and accelerate the processing of entrusted enforcement contract, implement practically and monitor with supervision for promoting the participation of non-government agencies in urban renewal business.

台灣不動產仲介業，從1977年成立公司組織發展至今32年、不動產仲介業務網路化從1996年至今13年、公部門為不動產交易安全建置e-house從2007年開始運作至今2年，對照2002年至今台灣不動產仲介交易糾紛逐年攀升現象；顯見，付出高額仲介費用買屋及賣屋的不動產消費者，並未因不動產仲介業者的組織規模龐大、營業收入豐碩、網路發達，資訊科技精進及政府成立e-house網站，而得到較完備的不動產交易安全保障。 本研究以滿足消費者需求為基礎，並以提供網絡仲介不動產交易安全環境的“推動方式和實實務層面”為主題，從不動產仲介之起源、不動產仲介市場現況、不動產仲介問題、e-house現況及e-house問題等過程為論述軸線.探討不動產仲介作業流程、不動產仲介交易糾紛原因、不動產網路仲介交易運作、聯賣制度運作不成功、自售網之崛起及e-house網站的政策目標等課題，經由(1)以交易成本及代理理論為基礎的論證；(2)對現行管理仲介業者的不動產經紀業管理條例之法制面與規範的認知；(3)對不動產消費者、不動產服務業者、政府三方不動產網路仲介交易相關主體特性的瞭解; (4)對於民間不動產網站及官方e-house網站仲介交易實務與現行法制規範相互影響，造成推動不動產交易安全障礙的課題進行探討; (5)分析影響不動產消費者使用民間不動產網站及官方e-house網站存在仲介代理問題及高昂仲介費用的交易成本等相關文獻面、法制面、實務面及一般會員使用e-house的問卷調查。綜合研究顯示：(1)台灣不動產仲介業與政府本身皆存在影響不動產交易安全推動的問題；(2)不動產仲介業對消費者可能存在委託代理問題及使用不動產網站產生交易成本的疑慮；(3)不動產仲介交易產生的代理問題及交易成本，會影響消費者對不動產交易行為的決策形式；(4)消費者利用網路進行不動產交易，是一項極為專業且繁瑣的消費活動，不動產仲介交易過程必須專業分工，才能消弭或降低代理問題及交易成本，促進交易安全。 本研究針對影響消費者使用仲介網站交易不動產的問題，嘗試建構「e-house網路交易不動產示範網站」的新思維，提供消費者消除或減少代理問題和交易成本，以促進不動產交易安全；另一方面，也考慮到其他不動產專業人士的權益及政府行政效能的提升。新思維的內容包括(1)建構“整合仲介交易過程之不動產專業分工機制” (2)改造e-house成為「e-house網路交易不動產示範網站」(3)研擬不動產網站經營者之資格條件、不動產網站作業內容及消費者與不動產業者網路作業等規範,並建議政府從「政策面」、「法制面」、「資訊面」、「推動面」及「執行面」等五個構面制定配套措施，消弭或降低代理問題及交易成本，推動不動產交易安全。 關鍵字：不動產仲介業、不動產經紀人、交易成本理論、代理理論、代理問題、e-house網路交易不動產示範網站 / Taiwan real estate brokerage industry appeared as company organization in 1977. In 1996, the real estate brokerage business launched onto internet website. In 2007, Public Security Department setup “e-house” network platform. However, from 2002 till now, the real estate transaction disputes still increase annually. Obviously, large organized real estate firms, developed network, sufficient information nor “e-house” network platform will not guarantee consumers who pay high broker fees to receive better and comprehensive real estate transaction safety. This study is to provide “promoting and practicing aspects” to real estate transaction safety network environment to satisfy consumers’ demands. It intends to look into the starting of real estate brokerage business, the current status of real estate brokerage market, the real estate broker problems, the current “e-house” status and its problems by examining the process of Taiwan real estate brokerage, the real estate transaction disputes, the real estate broker operating network, the failure of MLS, the rise of free broker fee network, and the policy objectives of “e-house” network platform by: (1) Demonstration on the basis of transactional cost and broker theory; (2) Comprehension on the procedures and the norms of Real Estate Broker Management Act; (3) Understand the characteristics of three participants, government, real estate service providers and the consumers, in the real estate transaction; (4) Investigate the conflicts between real estate operation network and the existing regulations that makes the promoting real estate transaction safety to be difficult; (5) Analyze the cost structure between private brokerage system and the official “e-house” system and how a consumer may react to two different systems with regards to legal system, practice and survey. A general conclusion from research indicates the following: (1) Problems appear on both sides of private and government agencies to promote safer and more transparent real estate transaction (2) Real estate brokers have doubts on buyers/seller’s trust on representation issue and the actual transactional cost for using a on-line web-site (3) Cost and representation issue arising from the actual real-estate transaction may Affect forms of consumers’ decision making. (4) Procedures for making an online real estate transaction are very complicated for consumers. Professional brokers have to monitor every step of the way in order to eliminate representation issue, reduce transactional cost, and promote safer transactional security. This study focuses on the problems emerging from consumers using an online real-estate website, while trying to demonstrate a safe “e-house” network platform can actually complete the real estate transaction. Once consumers have enough trust in the “e-house” network platform, it could potentially reduce representation issue problems and transactional cost. On the other hand, this system also protects brokers’ privileges while enhancing government’s efficiency. New concepts to be discussed in this study will include (1) Create a professional and integrated real-estate transactional mechanism. (2) Transform “e-house” into a demonstrated network platform for online real-estate transaction. (3) Set strict standards for qualifying private brokerage to operate an online real-estate network platform, to provide website contents, and operational model between consumer and real-estate broker. (4) Propose necessary measures to government in five aspects: “policy”, “legal system”, “information”, “promotion”, “implementation”. Keywords: Real estate brokerage industry, Real estate broker, Agency theory, Transaction cost theory, Representation issue, E-house network of real estate transactions demonstration platform.