No description available.

In general terms a mand is a requesting response. Typically, children learn basic mands (e.g., “I want drink”) before learning to mand for information. Across three experiments I taught children with autism to mand for information using the mands “What is it?,” “Where?,” and/or “Which?”. In Experiment 1, a modified multiple-baseline design across situations was used to evaluate a teaching procedure that consisted of contrived motivating operations, prompt fading and prompt delay, natural consequences, error correction, and a brief preference assessment for teaching “What is it?” The results demonstrated strong internal validity with each of the three participants, with each showing generalization to situations, activities, scripts, the natural environment, and over time. In Experiment 2, a modified multiple-baseline design across three participants was used to evaluate approximately the same teaching procedure for teaching “Where?” The results demonstrated strong internal validity with each of the three participants, with generalization by all three participants to novel situations, activities, location the natural environment, and over time. In Experiment 3, a modified multiple-baseline design across three participants was used to evaluate approximately the same teaching procedure for teaching “Which?” The results demonstrated strong internal validity with generalization by all three participants to novel situations, activities, scripts, the natural environment, and over time. These findings are discussed in terms of its contributions to applied behaviour analysis research on teaching mand to children with autism.

In general terms a mand is a requesting response. Typically, children learn basic mands (e.g., “I want drink”) before learning to mand for information. Across three experiments I taught children with autism to mand for information using the mands “What is it?,” “Where?,” and/or “Which?”. In Experiment 1, a modified multiple-baseline design across situations was used to evaluate a teaching procedure that consisted of contrived motivating operations, prompt fading and prompt delay, natural consequences, error correction, and a brief preference assessment for teaching “What is it?” The results demonstrated strong internal validity with each of the three participants, with each showing generalization to situations, activities, scripts, the natural environment, and over time. In Experiment 2, a modified multiple-baseline design across three participants was used to evaluate approximately the same teaching procedure for teaching “Where?” The results demonstrated strong internal validity with each of the three participants, with generalization by all three participants to novel situations, activities, location the natural environment, and over time. In Experiment 3, a modified multiple-baseline design across three participants was used to evaluate approximately the same teaching procedure for teaching “Which?” The results demonstrated strong internal validity with generalization by all three participants to novel situations, activities, scripts, the natural environment, and over time. These findings are discussed in terms of its contributions to applied behaviour analysis research on teaching mand to children with autism.

This thesis seeks to examine how funding arrangements for cancer drugs and other treatments, which are not available to everyone within the NHS, are made available to some, on the basis of exceptionality. The escalating costs of cancer treatment and the life threatening nature of cancer make resource allocation decisions for cancer drugs particularly acute, and the recent changes to funding arrangements for cancer drugs within the NHS receive particular scrutiny. In the three papers at the core of this thesis, the concept of exceptionality is explored from legal, ethical and empirical perspectives respectively. The first paper reviews the legal origin of exceptionality as the basis for the allocation of resources for expensive treatments, and explores how the concept has been interpreted by successive judicial reviews concerning access to cancer drugs. Particular attention is paid to the role of social factors in determining exceptionality. Choosing to fund treatment for one patient, and not another, involves a moral choice. In recognition of this, the Department of Health advocates that decision makers use an ethical framework to support decision making regarding exceptionality. The second paper examines the strengths and weakness of Daniels and Sabin’s Accountability for Reasonableness Framework, which is widely used to support resource allocation, focussing on the Relevance Condition, and its applicability to resource allocation within the NHS. The final paper reports the findings of an empirical study examining how PCTs interpret the concept of exceptionality in practice, providing the first comprehensive insight into the factors which are considered in determining whether a patient is exceptional, and exposing some of the external influences on the decision making process. In conclusion, it is argued that whilst the need for discretionary health funding decisions arises in rare circumstances, where this is necessary such decisions should be made on a national, or at least supra-regional basis, to ensure consistency and fairness. If we cannot afford to fund all effective cancer drugs, and other treatments, we should not hide behind the concept of exceptionality, but should have a national debate about how we reach a consensus on which drugs to fund, and about how we pay for those treatments. Whilst acknowledging that cancer is a dreadful disease, it is also argued that, in the absence of any convincing evidence that the management of cancer deserves preferential treatment, the special status of cancer funding within the NHS, which has become increasingly apparent in recent years, should come to an end.

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The purpose of this study is to examine the differences and similarities regarding verbal politeness in greetings and requests in Swedish and the Chilean variety of Spanish. A survey with 12 questions, both open-ended and closed-ended, has been distributed to 20 native speakers of the two languages. Thus, the questions have been analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results show that the perception that the Swedes and the Chileans have about verbal politeness is similar, since the speakers of both languages see it as a way to show respect towards others. The study also shows that Swedes and Chileans share a similar view upon politeness, i.e. as a social norm that facilitates social interaction between people.

This paper investigates communication between speakers with different first languages in a business setting, referred to as BELF, Business English as a lingua franca. The present paper investigates politeness strategies in BELF e-mail correspondence, and the interplay between them. Politeness strategies play an important role in e-mail correspondence, and this has been identified through studying formality in greetings and closings, and directness in requests. The dataset consists of 46 naturally-occurring e-mails, which have been grouped into internal or external correspondence to accordingly answer the research question, which aims to investigate whether or not there is a difference in the communicative approach depending on who the receiver is. This has been analysed in terms of the politeness strategies formality and directness, and the results show that the internal and external correspondence are very similar to each other, hence the level of formality and directness rather appears to depend on the sender him/herself. The results furthermore present that greetings are mainly informal, closings mainly formal and requests predominantly direct, for both internal and external correspondence. This would conventionally indicate that the e-mails are impolite; however, in accordance with some recent scholars it has been agreed that, along with the development of e-mails, the requirements for politeness have changed, and the e-mails in the present study are primarily considered polite.

As readers of the journal of the marquis d'Argenson will knows the mastres des requetes ordinaires do 1'hotel du roi were "la vraie pepiniere des administrateurs" in the eighteenth century (1) From this judicial company were drawn the intendants of the provinces, finance and commerce, most of the councillors of state and, sometimes, secretaries of state, keepers of the seal and chancellors. (2) The term "pepiniere" could also be used to describe the masters during the reign of Louis X, at least after 1660. Yet, before the reign of Louis xiii the description was not an accurate characterization, for the simple reason that the centralized administration of later Bourbon France did not exist. To be sure administrators abounded, even though they were fewer in number in sixteenth than seventeenth-century France. As a well-known article by Gaston Zeller illustrates Valois France was ruled by a decentralized. administration. - (3) "Before the intendants" the realm was under the supervision of governors, parlements, estates and local functionaries. Representatives from the centre made few appearances in the provinces, for the centre was composed of the king and his court and only a handful of robins and scribes. From the end of the religious wars until the Fronde this system began to crumble under the assault of what historians refer to as administrative centralization. To say that the monarchy "undertook" this policy would be misleading since it was mainly a consequence of the efforts of the crown, supported by much of the elite, to liberate itself from both the Protestant state-within a- state and the Spanish hegemony. Obliged to mobilize resources, to control internal conditions which became more alarming in the 1620s and 1630s and to handle the growing influx of administrative and judicial business which was the result of its policies, the crown required a group of officials who would be responsible first and foremost to itself. Local magistrates and administrators, whose reliability was sometimes undermined by provincial loyalties and attachments to venerable institutions dis-ow posing of much independence from the crown, could not be entrusted with all the necessary, tasks. But the company, of masters, originally a tiny group of magistrates who had traditionally received placets presented to the king, was the tool to which the king had recourse. One of our intentions is to show how the monarchy adapted this traditional group to serve ends which were revolutionary. This work traces what can only be called the rise of the masters", a phenomena which coincided with their metamorphosis into the "pepiniere" of a central administration which was busier and more involved in local affairs under Louis XIII than under the Valois. The period covered is one which would have seemed coherent to men of the l64Os vfor as Pomponne do Bellievre, a councillor of state, wrote: de temps en temps les fonctions do lours charges s'estoient alleves et quelquefois diminuees, ii est advenu quo los guerres civilles de la ligue finissantes apres la diminuation de leurs charges, elles se releverent beaucoup, en sorte quo le prix d'icelles estant d'un tiers moindre que les offices au parlement, auiourd'huy, cinquante ans apres, le prix an est augmente pardessus les offices au parlement de plus du tiers, l'asseurance du droict annuel donna courage d'y entrer et L'esperance at comme certitude d'en sortir conseiller d'estat: en y ayant beaucoup porte qui autrement n'y fussent pas entres"., (4) However, ideally we would be obliged to follow the history of the company into the 1660s. This has been done in some, but not all, sections of this work. The story of the group is a complicated and rich one' as scholars who have ventured in this direction-- especially Professors Mousnier and Antoine-- are well aware. (5) Although the most important cause of the magisterial success is the one noted above, it will be necessary to explain other factors- the conditions of success, some of which lay in the chaotic financial conditions of Valois France, and other forces which propelled the masters along an advantageous itinerary. , "such as their skill as a pressure group. Attention, will also be given to the ambiguities of their position. for they were tied closely professionally, and socially to judicial companies which drifted steadily into opposition to the crown, under Louis XII7.

<p>This essay investigates the relationship between gender and politeness, specifically in the areaof requests. The reason why this topic was chosen is that it is claimed that men and womencommunicate differently and express requests differently. The aim is to identify and clarifythe different manners men and women express politeness with regard to the phrases Canyou…? and Could you…?. A total of 200 occurrences of Can you…? and Could you…? wereselected and analyzed from the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA).</p><p>The working hypothesis was that, in accordance with their gender “regulations”,women use Could you much more than men and therefore act more polite. The findings,however, are contradictory and indicate that this was not the case. Men tend to use the morepolite form Could you, and women tend to use the less polite form Can you. Moreover,requests are in some contexts expressed similarly by men and women. Therefore, the generalclaim about women being more polite in their language may not be correct.</p>

Girls with foreign background is the group that is most left outside the sports movement in Sweden and the ones with the least sports habit. Sports assumed to provide an arena for integration that these girls are being left outside from. The Swedish sports movement has adapted the conditions for them as a way to encourage them to participate in sports, but there are still lots of girls with foreign background that stands outside the sports movement. One input that the Swedish National Association has done for children and young adults is to adopt the Drive-in-sport, which can work as an entrance to the sports movement. The aim of the study is therefore to investigate which barriers, motivators and requests girls in Sweden with foreign background have to participate in Drive-in-sports. Eight interviews have been done to girls who do not participate in Drive-in-sports. The results shows that the main reasons for the girls to not participate are: lack of time, homework, babies, don't have friends to go with and that they think they will be left outside because of their veil. The conclusion is that the girls are looking for community and continuity which the sport clubs can offer them but the Drive-in-sports probably can not.