Diss. (sammanfattning) Stockholm : Karol. inst., 2005. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Cornell University, January, 2009. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Τα ρετινοειδή αποτελούν μια μεγάλη οικογένεια οργανικών μορίων που μοιάζουν δομικά με τη βιταμίνη Α. Το all-trans ρετινοϊκό οξύ (atRA) συμμετέχει σε μεγάλο εύρος βιολογικών διεργασιών μέσω της πρόσδεσής του και της ενεργοποίησης των υποδοχέων του, τους υποδοχείς ρετινοϊκού οξέος (RAR) και τους υποδοχείς ρειτινοειδών Χ (RXR). Κάθε κατηγορία υποδοχέων περιλαμβάνει τρία μέλη, α, β και γ. Τα ρετινοειδή χρησιμοποιούνται για τη θεραπεία πολλών ασθενειών, από την κοινή ακμή ως την οξεία προμυελωτική λευχαιμία. Λόγω των σοβαρών ανεπιθύμητων ενεργειών τους, γίνεται προσπάθεια να συντεθούν ανάλογα με λιγότερες ανεπιθύμητες δράσεις ή/και καλύτερη αποτελεσματικότητα. Προς αυτήν την κατεύθυνση έχουν συντεθεί πολλά ανάλογα, ανάμεσα τους και αυτά που χρησιμοποιήθηκαν στην παρούσα εργασία: RA2SPM (ένα σύζευγμα δύο μορίων atRA με σπερμίνη), ACI2SPM (ένα σύζευγμα δύο μορίων ασιτρετίνης με σπερμίνη), TRX2SPM (ένα σύζευγμα δύο μορίων τριοξαλενίου με σπερμίνη), ACI-SPM-TRX (σύζευγμα ασιτρετίνης και τριοξαλενίου με σπερμίνη), RA-SPM-ACI (σύζευγμα atRA και τριοξαλενίου με σπερμίνη). Τα ανάλογα αυτά συντέθηκαν από την ερευνητική ομάδα του καθηγητή Δ. Παπαϊωάννου, στο Τμήμα Χημείας του Πανεπιστημίου Πατρών. Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετήθηκε η δράση των αναλόγων αυτών στην ανάπτυξη καρκινικών κυττάρων προστάτη PC3 in vitro και έγινε μια αρχική διερεύνηση του μηχανισμού δράσης και της πιθανής εμπλοκής των υποδοχέων ρετινοειδών. Ως πρότυπη ένωση με την οποία συγκρίθηκαν όλες οι άλλες ενώσεις χρησιμοποιήθηκε το ανάλογο RA2SPM, Το ανάλογο ACI2SPM έχει την καλύτερη δράση σε σύγκριση με τα άλλα ανάλογα, αφού προκάλεσε δοσο-εξαρτώμενη μείωση του αριθμού των κυττάρων PC3 σε ποσοστό παρόμοιο με τη δράση του RA2SPM και είναι πιο δραστικό στη συγκέντρωση 10-6Μ σε σχέση με τα άλλα ανάλογα. Αυτή η δράση φαίνεται να σχετίζεται με αύξηση των επιπέδων του mRNA του ογκοκατασταλτικού γονιδίου RARβ, που όμως είναι μικρότερη από αυτήν που προκαλεί το ανάλογο RA2SPM. Ο εκλεκτικός ανταγωνιστής του RARα, Ro-41-5253, βρέθηκε ότι επίσης προκαλεί αύξηση των επιπέδων του mRNA του RARβ, ενώ δεν επηρεάζει τη δράση του ACI2SPM. Επιπλέον, το ανάλογο ACI2SPM μείωσε τα επίπεδα της πρωτεΐνης πλειοτροπίνης (PTN), η οποία είναι γνωστό πως παίζει σημαντικό ρόλο στην ανάπτυξη των καρκινικών κυττάρων προστάτη PC3. Η μείωση είναι μικρότερη από αυτήν που προκαλεί το ανάλογο RA2SPM και δεν επηρεάζεται από τον ανταγωνιστή Ro 41-5253, ο οποίος έχει από μόνος του ανασταλτική δράση. Συμπερασματικά, τα αποτελέσματα της παρούσας εργασίας υποδεικνύουν ότι το ανάλογο ACI2SPM είναι αποτελεσματικό στη μείωση του αριθμού των καρκινικών κυττάρων προστάτη PC3 και στη μείωση των επιπέδων της (PTN), αλλά η δράση του είναι μικρότερη από αυτήν του RA2SPM. Επίσης, καταδεικνύουν ότι ο εκλεκτικός αναστολέας του RARα Ro-41-5253, όπως έχει αναφερθεί ξανά στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, παρουσιάζει προβλήματα εκλεκτικότητας και πρέπει να χρησιμοποιείται με προσοχή. / Retinoids constitute a large family of organic compounds structurally related to the naturally occurring vitamin A. All-trans-retinoic acid (atRA) is known to modulate a wide range of cellular biological processes through binding to and activation of its specific receptors, retinoic acid receptors (RAR) and retinoid X receptors α, β and γ. Retinoids are being used for the treatment of various diseases, ranging from acne vulgaris to acute promyelocytic leukemia. However, due to serious adverse effects, there has been a great effort to synthesize analogues with better efficacy or/and minimized adverse effects. Towards this direction, many analogues have been synthesized, among which those that have been used in the present work: RA2SPM (a conjugate of all-trans retinoic acid with spermine), ACI2SPM (a conjugate of 2 molecules of acitretin with spermine), TRX2SPM (a conjugate of 2 molecules of trioxalen with spermine), ACI-SPM-TRX (a conjugate of trioxalen and acitretin with spermine), RA-SPM-ACI (a conjugate of all-trans retinoic acid and acitretin with spermine). These analogues have been synthesized by the research group of Prof. D. Papaioannou at the Department of Chemistry of the University of Patras. The present work represents an initial investigation of the in vitro effects of these analogues on prostate cancer cell growth (PC3), as well as of their mechanism of action and the possible involvement of retinoid receptors. The analogue RA2SPM was used as a reference control. The analogue ACI2SPM decreased the number of prostate cancer PC3 cells in a concentration-dependent manner, being as effective as RA2SPM and more effective compared with the rest of the tested analogues. This effect seems to correlate with an increase of the mRNA levels of the RARβ tumour repressor gene; however, the RARβ tumour repressor mRNA levels decrease is smaller than that observed with RA2SPM. The RARa selective antagonist Ro 41-5253 also increases the RARβ mRNA levels, while it does not affect the ACI2SP-induced increase. Furthermore, the ACI2SPM analogue was found to decrease the protein levels of the growth factor pleiotrophin (PTN), which is known to play an important role in the growth of the prostate cancer cell line PC3. Similarly to the effect on RARβ, the decrease of the PTN levels achieved by ACI2SPM is smaller than the one achieved by RA2SPM and is unaffected by the antagonist Ro 41-5253. Ro 41-5253 decreased PTN levels by itself, supporting the increasing notion that it should be used with caution as a RARα antagonist. In conclusion, the results of this work suggest that the ACI2SPM analogue is efficient in decreasing the prostate cancer PC3 cell numbers and PTN protein levels but seems to be less effective than RA2SPM action. More work is required in order to define the mechanism(s) of action of the tested analogues, as well as to better specify their effectiveness and toxicity.

Forelimbs of Day 11 and Day 12 embryonic mice were excised and cultured for 3 d in the presence of either 0.25 μg (8×10-7 M), 0.5 μg(1.7×10-6 M), or 1.0 μg (3.3×10-6 M) of all-rans retinoic acid (RA) per milliliter of culture medium. Cultured limbs were fixed, stained, and mounted whole on glass slides and evaluated with computerized optical image analysis for RA-induced effects on the area and shape of the total limb and individual bone anlagen. Relative effects of RA on total bone, soft tissue, long bone, and paw regions were also examined. With Day 11 forelimbs total bone area was increased by 10.5% by the low dose of RA. The increase was mostly in long bones and at the expense of soft tissue. Total bone area was increased 9.3% with Day 12 forelimbs. This increase was primarily in the paw. The high dose of RA decreased Day 11 forelimb area, primarily affecting long bones. Day 12 forelimbs were not significantly affected by the high dose of RA. Effects of the imtermediate dose were primarily limited to reduction in soft tissue area. Long bone:paw and soft tissue: bone ratios reflected these effects. The high dose produced a consistent rounding or shortening of Day 11 forelimb bones. On Day 12 0.5 μg/ml RA produced an inconsistent pattern of rounding of bone anlagen. Treatment with the high dose on Day 12 produced angular rather than rounded contours in many cases, as indicated by shape factor values closer to zero than obtained with controls. These data show that direct exposure to RA can affect both the size and shape of bone anlagen of the developing limb; the low dose enhances and the high dose depresses development. The results support previous studies which suggest that RA may play a critical role in the control of cell activities such as cell migration, proliferation, and cytodifferentiation in the development of the cartilaginous bone anlagen.

The ligand activated transcription factor retinoid X receptor (RXR) forms a DNA binding heterodimer with pregnane X rseceptor (PXR) in response to foreign xenobiotics. In addition to RXR and PXR there are other proteins involved in the RXR/PXR signaling pathway. Many proteins involved in this pathway are still unknown. This study documents the production of RXR and PXR in a bacterial recombinant fusion system. These proteins were expressed in a system that allowed purification with six histidine residues. Once the proteins were expressed and purified from E. coli, they were solublized and tested for function. Different strategies were employed including temperature and inducer studies and denaturing and renaturing techniques to solublize PXR. Following the solubilzation of each protein, all proteins were subjected to a method of functional analysis. RXR function was assessed by electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) and proved to effectively form a DNA binding heterodimer with PXR. These studies involving RXR and PXR demonstrate that these proteins can be efficiently produced in a functional manner utilizing an inexpensive bacterial system. In addition, this study documents various strategies for combating "inclusion body" formation in the overexpression ofPXR. Also, it describes the production of plasmid pCMV-RXR for transfection into the HepG2 cell line to monitor the levels of cellular RXR in various tissue types.

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Autosomal dominant epidermolytic ichthyosis (EI) is a rare disease characterized by intra-epidermal blistering due to mutations in either of two keratin genes, KRT1 and KRT10, expressed by suprabasal keratinocytes. Autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis (ARCI) is a non-blistering, hyperkeratotic disease caused by mutations in one of the following genes: ABCA12, ALOX12B, ALOXE3, TGM1, CYP4F22, NIPAL4 and SLC27A4, which are all essential for skin barrier homeostasis. ARCI and EI often respond well to treatment with retinoids, but the mechanism of action is unclear. The aim of this thesis was to increase the knowledge of pathogenic pathways in ichthyosis and to find new explanations to the effect of retinoids. In vitro studies of immortalized keratinocytes from EI patients showed an abnormal keratin aggregation after heat stress, that could be partially inhibited by pre-treatment with all-trans retinoic acid (ATRA) or retinoic acid receptor α-agonists. ATRA treatment also reduced the relative expression of mutated vs wildtype KRT10. The clearance of ATRA in human keratinocytes was found to be mediated by CYP26B1. In skin biopsies from ARCI patients, immunofluorescence analysis of 12R-LOX, eLOX-3, TGM1, ichthyin and FATP4 showed altered expression, not only of the mutated protein, but also of the other proteins. These observations are consistent with a feedback regulatory mechanism by which the loss of one protein results in an up-regulation of other proteins. Furthermore, 12R-LOX, eLOX-3 and TGM1 were intimately co-localized in stratum corneum, as were ichthyin and FATP4, suggesting that the proteins are linked to the same metabolic pathway. When treated with a CYP26 inhibitor known to raise the endogenous ATRA level of the skin, two patients with NIPAL4 mutations, initially exhibiting increased co-localization signals for 12R-LOX and eLOX-3, displayed normalized lipoxygenase expressions and showed clinical improvement. In conclusion, mechanisms are proposed by which pathogenic keratin aggregations in EI and epidermal protein deficiencies in ARCI patients may be mitigated by retinoids. Furthermore, the vivid crosstalk between proteins incriminated in ARCI suggests that these enzymes operate along a common metabolic pathway essential for producing barrier lipids in stratum corneum. Any abrogation of this production may cause barrier failure, hence resulting in a compensatory hyperkeratosis characteristic of congenital ichthyosis.

The human retinoid X receptor alpha (hRXRalpha) is a member of the nuclear receptor super-family of ligand-activated transcription factors. The Doyle laboratory has previously engineered a variety of functional hRXRalpha variants that activate gene expression in response to synthetic ligands (LG335 and γ-oxo-1-pyrenebutyric acid), compounds that are poor activators of wild-type hRXRalpha. The variants generally no longer respond to the wild-type ligand 9-cis retinoic acid. To enable targeting of these engineered receptors to arbitrary DNA sequences, we developed a program, ESPSearch, for identifying short or specific sequences in DNA or protein. ESPSearch enables identification of combinations of known zinc finger motifs to target arbitrary genes, as well having several other applications. The ability to target any DNA sequence means that the engineered receptors can be directed to control any gene. The ligand binding, self-association, coactivator interactions, and unfolding properties of the ligand binding domain of wild-type hRXRalpha were characterized. Our expression and purification protocol improves upon existing methods, providing high purity protein in a single step with more than twice prior yields. A general fluorescence-based method for measuring ligand affinity with hRXRalpha was developed, and used to determine binding constants for the small molecules. The presence of a peptide containing the binding motif from coactivator proteins (LxxLL) differentially increased the affinity of the receptor for the ligands. Assays to determine the self-association give a Kd for the dimer-tetramer equilibrium of 35 µM. hRXRalpha was found to denature irreversibly when heated, but shifts in apparent Tm due to ligands correlates strongly with the ligand binding affinities. Our results clarify disparities in existing reports and provide a benchmark for comparison. Reliable analysis of our data led to the development of a computer program for rigorous, automated data fitting. Nine functional variants of hRXRalpha were characterized to probe correlations between biophysical properties and the observed functional activity of the receptors, which differ significantly from wild-type. Although the correlation between ligand binding affinity and melting temperature was strong for all variants, there was essentially no correlation between ligand binding and activation of the variants. The mutations, which are all contained within the binding pocket, have significant long-range effects on the protein, causing changes in ligand-LxxLL interactions and oligomerization of the variants. Experimental and computational analysis of selected mutations suggests that they are highly coupled, complicating protein design. However, the large variation in properties amongst the variants also suggests that hRXRalpha can be mutated extensively while still retaining function. The long-range impact of binding pocket mutations will need to be taken into account in future engineering projects, as hRXRalpha is a flexible, dynamic protein.

Η ασιτρετίνη, τα ψωραλένια και η μινοξιδίλη αποτελούν φάρμακα επιλογής για την αντιμετώπιση δερματικών ασθενειών (ψωρίαση, καρκίνος δέρματος, λεύκη, ανδρογενής αλωπεκία). Στο πλαίσιο της παρούσας διδακτορικής διατριβής αναπτύχθηκαν συγκλίνουσες συνθετικές μεθοδολογίες για την ολική σύνθεση αναλόγων της ασιτρετίνης με μεταβολές στο λιπόφιλο τμήμα της. Επιπλέον, τροποποιήθηκαν με χημικό τρόπο ψωραλένια, όπως το τριοξαλένιο, το μπερκαπτένιο και το ξανθοτοξένιο και συντέθηκε μια πληθώρα υβριδικών αναλόγων και συζευγμάτων τους με όξινα ρετινοειδή. Τέλος, αναπτύχθηκαν μεθοδολογίες για την ολική σύνθεση αναλόγων και συζευγμάτων της μινοξιδίλης με πολυαμίνες και άλλα βιοδραστικά μόρια. / Acitretin, Psoralens and Minoxidil are the drug of choice for the treatment of several dermatological disorders, such as psoriasis, vitiligo, cancer and adrogenic alopecia. In the context of the present thesis we developed efficient convergent synthetic methodologies for the total syntheses of acitretin analogs, incorporating changes in the lipophilic part. Moreover, psoralens, such as trioxsalen, bergapten and xanthotoxin, were chemically modified, in order to synthesize, hybrid analogs and conjugates with acidic retinoids. Finally, we developed efficient synthetic methodologies for the total synthesis of analogs and conjugates of Minoxidil with polyamines and other molecules with biological interest.

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