À l'exception de Le Confessioni di un italiano, le roman le plus célèbre d'Ippolito Nievo (1831-1861), - et d'une partie de sa production poétique – Le poesie garibaldine- , les œuvres de Nievo sont encore, en grande partie, étudies selon l'image du début du XXe siècle fixée par Dino Mantovani. Le premier biographe de Nievo a voulu relever dans ses œuvres une dimension poétique et esthétique liée au Romantisme, auxquelles s'ajoute un arrière fond politique. Cet portrait a marqué la tendance de la critique italienne à lire et relire Nievo comme l'écrivain qui a donné les plus belles pages de la littérature du Risorgimento, mais, en même temps, qui n'a jamais eu une propre et véritable dimension intellectuelle. Mais, depuis le lancement de l'Edition Nationale de l'Œuvres d'Ippolito Nievo en 2005 à Padoue, cette image a commencé lentement a changer. Il y a eu un revirement critique signalé par la décision de publier comme premiers titres les comédies Pindaro Pulcinella et Le Invasioni moderne, soulignant la volonté d'ouvrir les études aux textes moins connus qui avaient été sacrifiés et, parfois, jamais publies au XXe siècle. Cette approche, donc, a engendré une revalorisation et une redécouverte de toute sa production romanesque, poétique et journalistique. Par conséquence il à été possible pénétrer totalement sa pratique d'écriture. Quant à ce sujet il s'arrive que Nievo avait l'habitude de rédiger en même temps des textes de nature très différente: des poèmes et des roman, des articles et des lettres. Cette pratique a mise à jour la naturelle tendance à abattre les confins entre les genres.Pour ce qui concerne les œuvres théâtrales, dont nous proposons l'édition critique (la comédie I « Beffeggiatori » et les brouillons pour une comédie en vers « Don Giovanni » et un livret d'opéra « Consuelo ») cette absence de confins est encore plus évidente. D'une manière générale on peut affirmer que Nievo n'a jamais regardé au théâtre contemporain, mais il a fondé sa dramaturgie sur des éléments très éloignes entre eux: la tradition goldonienne pour la fonction des personnages par rapport à certaines situations (par exemple la typologie du moquer ou des amoureux), la production romanesque française de Honoré de Balzac, de Stendhal et de George Sand pour la structure des relations entre les personnages et pour le choix des thèmes d'actualité (par exemple la description ironique du pouvoir politique de l'aristocratie). Donc il apparaît aujourd'hui que, même si Nievo n'avait jamais quitte l'Italie, sa dimension existentielle et intellectuelle était complètement européenne. Il s'agit d'une double identité littéraire et nationale ambiguë, qui dénoue très clairement la complexité de l'écrivain italien. / For a long time Ippolito Nievo’s (1831-1861) theatrical production was considered less important than his work of narrative and was considered as “juvenile work”. On the contrary, during the last ten years of the Nineteenth century, it was reconsidered and it brought to the discovery of several comic texts, such as Le Invasioni Moderne and Il Pindaro Pulcinella, which have showed Nievo’s cleverness in writing plays for the theatre.The edition of the last unpublished production, which is presented in this essay, completes and broadens the studies done on Nievo’s theatre, at the same time, opening several doors for a possible reconsideration of some critical points of Nievo’s literary aesthetics. From the study of the unpublished texts produced before Le Confessioni di un Italiano, in fact, Nievo’s dependence on French literature appeared, especially Balzac, Stendhal and George Sand. The setting of I Beffeggiatori –a political comedy which portrays Italy in 1852-1853 – and its study of the characters recalls the Chartreuse de Parme by Stendhal, his ironical glance at political happenings told by Balzac and it moves away totally from contemporary comic theatre. Don Giovanni –notes for a comic text in verses- results from Stendhalian considerations on the figure of the Seduttore, considerations which we can find in the De l’Amour and in the short story Les Cenci; but Don Giovanni also results from the whole French post-Byron tradition of the myth. Consuelo – the libretto- reveals a clear and evident Sandian matrix in its plot and allows to formulate a theory on the aesthetic Nievian music, full of Mazzinian considerations, well known to Sand too.The edition of these texts has allowed to reformulate some judgements on the origin of Nievo’s irony, even in L’Afrodisiaco per l’amor platonico and in Lettere a Matilde, underlining a matrix which is decidedly and only French.

Ce travail se propose de reconstruire une page peu connue de l'histoire de la diaspora de l'époque du Risorgimento, écrite autour d'un journal littéraire publié à Paris entre les mois de mai et octobre 1836, «L’Italiano. Foglio letterario».Conçu en Suisse par Mazzini et certains de ses compagnons d'exil, «L’Italiano» vit le jour grâce à la collaboration d'un groupe d'exilés italiens résidant dans la capitale française.Par rapport à l'idée d'origine née au sein de la Jeune Italie, le journal dut se confronter à des intellectuels aux parcours culturels et politiques divers qui collaborèrent pour « inaugurer une nationalité, soit-elle littéraire ».Contrairement à son prédécesseur parisien, «L'Exilé» (1832-1834), qui avait l'ambition d'offrir au public italien et français une histoire de la littérature italienne, «L'Italiano» proposait un programme de « critique éducatrice » en s'adressant principalement aux intellectuels de la péninsule.Outre le partage d'une conception éthique et civique de la littérature, le socle culturel sur lequel reposait le journal se fondait sur l'adhésion à une philosophie spiritualiste qui, tout en se revendiquant exclusivement italienne, était alimentée par la rencontre avec certains penseurs français de la Restauration, comme Pierre Leroux et Philippe Buchez.Le programme littéraire du journal s'appuyait sur le théâtre dramatique et sur le mélodrame, considérés comme des dispositifs de mobilisation politique aptes à transposer l'idée de nation sur un plan émotif et symbolique mais aussi à toucher les classes populaires sans avoir recours à la médiation de la parole écrite. / The research aims at reconstructing a neglected episode in the cultural life of the Italian exiles in the Age of the Risorgimento and is centered on a literary magazine published in Paris, from May to October 1836: «L'Italiano. Foglio letterario».«L'Italiano» was envisaged by Mazzini in Switzerland, together with his companions ofexile, and was eventually published with the aid of a group of Italian refugees in Paris. The journal was originally conceived within the context of the «Giovine Italia», but had to face up to a number of intellectuals whose cultural and political background was extremely various and whose intent was to cooperate in order to «principiare una nazionalità, sia pure letteraria».While «L’Exilé» (1832-1834) – the nearest antecedent of this magazine – aspired to provide an history of Italian literature for the Italian and French readers, «L'Italiano» presented rather a program of «critica educatrice» and it was especially addressed to the Italian intellectuals.The circle which arised around the journal was cemented not only by an ethic and engaged conception of literature, but also by a spiritualist philosophy: even if the proponents defended the Italian character of this philosophy, it was developed through a continuous exchange with French Philosophers of the Age of Reaction, such as Pierre Leroux and Philippe Buchez.The journal's proposal was centered on dramatic theatre and melodrama, insofar as theywere considered as instruments for political mobilization, apt to set on an emotional and symbolic dimension the idea of nation, as well as to affect the working-class, without the need for written words. / Questo lavoro si propone di ricostruire una pagina poco nota della diaspora risorgimentale, sorta attorno a un giornale letterario che si pubblicò a Parigi tra il maggio e l'ottobre del 1836, «L’Italiano. Foglio letterario». Concepito in Svizzera da Mazzini e da alcuni suoi compagni d’esilio, «L’Italiano» vide finalmente la luce grazie alla collaborazione di un gruppo di esuli italiani residenti nella capitale francese. Rispetto all’idea originaria, sorta in seno alla Giovine Italia, il giornale dovette confrontarsi con intellettuali dai percorsi culturali e politici assai diversi tra loro, che si trovarono a cooperare per «principiare una nazionalità, sia pure letteraria».Diversamente dal suo precedente parigino, «L'Exilé» (1832-1834), che ambiva a offrire al pubblico italiano e francese una storia della letteratura italiana, «L'Italiano» proponeva, invece, un programma di «critica educatrice» rivolto principalmente agli intellettuali della penisola. Oltre alla condivisione di una concezione etica e civile della letteratura, il sodalizio culturale sorto attorno al giornale si fondava sull’adesione a una filosofia di stampo spiritualista che, pur rivendicando un’origine tutta italiana, si alimentava grazie al confronto con alcuni pensatori francesi della Restaurazione, come Pierre Leroux e Philippe Buchez.La proposta letteraria del giornale poggiava sul teatro drammatico e sul melodramma, in cui riconosceva dei dispositivi di mobilitazione politica che, oltre a proiettare l’idea di nazione su un piano emotivo e simbolico, potevano raggiungere le classi popolari senza la mediazione della parola scritta.

Nel Risorgimento alla definizione del concetto di identità nazionale concorse una serie di fattori legati alla sfera culturale: dalle letture che ispirarono i patrioti, agli scritti che essi stessi diedero alle stampe, ai simboli ed ai miti che entrarono a fare parte del loro linguaggio, fino alla cultura teatrale e alla teatralità, e quindi al momento festivo e rituale, visti come motivo di aggregazione, partecipazione e trasmissione di valori civili fondanti. Nel presente lavoro si indagano le connessioni tra la ritualità cittadina ed il teatro e gli spiriti libertari ed i valori civili propri del periodo risorgimentale in area milanese, dal 1815 della Restaurazione al 1859 dell’entrata degli alleati in Milano. / In the Risorgimento some cultural factors contributed to the definition of the idea of national identity: readings that inspired patriots, writings they printed, symbols and myths that became part of their language, theatrical culture and theatricality and celebrations and rituals, considered like reason of aggregation, participation and transmission of civil virtues. This thesis examines relationships between rituals, theatre and libertarian feelings and civil values of the Risorgimento, in Milan, from 1815 to 1859.

Il presente studio si propone di ricostruire, in una dimensione monografica, la figura di Francesco Scaramuzza, personalità artistica prolifica che ha determinato nella prima metà dell’Ottocento il nuovo corso della pittura parmense. Interprete e portatore di un Romanticismo atipico, fu debitore, a suo modo, tanto della lezione dei Nazareni quanto, più tardi, della svolta lombarda verso i temi contemporanei, senza mai trascurare l’amata impronta correggesca. L’artista attraversa tre distinti momenti di committenza, dal governo restaurato di Maria Luigia d’Asburgo, dopo la parentesi napoleonica, all’infelice intervallo borbonico, presto sfociato nell’annessione al regno Sardo di Vittorio Emanuele II. Sotto la sovrana austriaca giunge all’apice della carriera, subendo, però, una battuta d’arresto con i Borbone a causa delle sue note simpatie libertarie. Trova una conferma nel nuovo governo unitario, il quale gli affida il compito di illustrare la Divina Commedia, la sua opera più nota e più riuscita, che segnerà, dopo diciassette anni di strenuo lavoro, il punto di arrivo della sua carriera d’artista. / This study aims to reconstruct, in a monographic dimension, the profile of Francesco Scaramuzza, a prolific artist who determined the new course of painting in Parma in the first half of the 19th century. Interpreter and bearer of an atypical Romanticism, in his artistic development he was inspired by the lessons of the Nazarenes as much as by the Lombard interest in contemporary subjects, without neglecting the beloved imprint of Correggio’s style. Throughout his career he went through three different patronages, from the restored regime of Marie Louise of Hapsburg, after the Napoleonic period, to the unhappy Bourbon interlude, ended quickly with the annexation to the reign of Vittorio Emanuele II. Under the Austrian sovereign he reached the peak of his career, suffering, however, a setback under the Bourbon government because of his well-known libertarian sympathies. His value was recognized eventually by the establishment of the united Italy, who entrusted him to illustrate the Divine Comedy, his most famous and successful work, which will mark, after seventeen years of strenuous work, the conclusion of his career as an artist.

This thesis deals with Girolamo Savonarola and with his place in the imagination and collective memory of Italians from the early nineteenth century to the present. It examines the works of a variety of Italian fictional authors who turned to Savonarola in the belief that he could help them pursue objectives which, in their opinion, Italy and Italians should strive to achieve. At first, he was called upon by nationalist writers of the Risorgimento to inspire a people and convince it of the need for a free, united Italy. Later, as the new nation began to consolidate and Italians came to realize that unification had not delivered all that it had promised, Savonarola was employed in a negative way to show that military action and force were necessary to ensure Italy's progress to the status of great power. As Italians became more aware of the grave social issues facing their nation, he was called upon, once again, to help change social policy and to remind the people of its civic responsibility to the less fortunate members of society. The extent of Savonarola's adaptability is also explored through the analysis of his manipulation by the writers of Fascist Italy. Remarkably, he was used to highlight to Italians their duty to stand by Mussolini and the Fascist Regime during their struggle with the Catholic Church and the Pope. At the same time, however, one writer daringly used Savonarola's apostolate to condemn the Regime and the people's blind adherence to its philosophies. As Fascism fell and Italy began to rebuild after the Second World War, there was no longer a need for Savonarola to be used for political or militaristic ends. In recent times, emphasis has been placed on the human side of the Friar and he has been employed solely to guide Italians in a civic, moral and spiritual sense. From the Risorgimento to the present, the various changes in Italian history have been foreshadowed in the treatment of Savonarola by Italian fictional authors who turned to him in difficult times to help define what it is to be Italian.

Dante Alighieri is, undoubtedly, an enduring feature of the cultural memory of generations of Italians. His influence is such that the mere mention of a ‘dark wood’ or ‘life’s journey’ recalls the poet and his most celebrated work, the Divina Commedia. This study, however, seeks to examine the construction of the medieval Florentine poet, exemplified by the above assertion, as a potent symbol of the Italian nation. From the creation of the idea of the Italian nation during the Risorgimento, to the Liberal ruling elite’s efforts after 1861 to legitimise the new Italian nation state, and more importantly to ‘make Italians’, to the rise of a more imperialist conception of nationalism in the early twentieth century and its most extreme expression under the Fascist regime, Dante was made to play a significant role in defining, justifying and glorifying the Italian nation. Such an exploration of the utilisation of Dante in the construction of Italian national identity during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries aids considerably in an understanding of the conceptualisation of the Italian nation, of the issues engendered by the establishment of the Italian nation state, and the evolution of these processes throughout the period in question. The various images of Dante revealed by this investigation of his instrumentalisation in the Italian process of nation-building bear only a fleeting resemblance to what is known of the poet in his medieval reality. Dante was born in 1265 to a family of modest means and standing in Florence, at that time the economic centre of Europe, and one of the most important cities of the Italian peninsula. His writings disclosed, however, that he was little impressed by his city’s prestige and wealth, being instead greatly disturbed by its political discord and instability, of which he became an unfortunate victim. The violent partisan conflict in Florence and the turbulent political condition of the Italian peninsula in the late thirteenth century had a decisive influence on Dante’s life and literary endeavours.