Das Hauptthema dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung der Selbstorganisation organischer Moleküle an der Flüssig-Fest-Grenzfläche (LSI). Besondere Betonung liegt auf der Kontrolle der Selbstassemblierung durch geeignete Parameter: die Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung, die Konzentration der gelösten Moleküle, und die chemische Natur der gelösten Stoffe und Lösungsmittel. Die Untersuchungen wurden unter Verwendung der Rastertunnelmikroskopie (STM) durchgeführt. Der erste Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Untersuchung der Auswirkung erhöhter Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung aus der Lösung auf die Selbstorganisation komplexer molekularer Architekturen an der LSI. Diese Untersuchungen wurden mit dem planaren Molekül Trimesinsäure (TMA), sowie dem nicht-planaren Molekül Benzen-1,3,5-triphosphonsäure (BTP) durchgeführt. Es wird gezeigt, dass der Polymorphismus der Adsorbatstrukturen von TMA und BTP durch die Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung der Moleküle aus der Lösung für verschiedene Lösungsmitteln unterschiedlicher Polarität, wie Phenyloctan, Octansäure und Undecanol, kontrolliert werden kann. Durch die Erhöhung der Temperatur des vorgeheiztem Graphitsubstrates kann die spezifische 2D supramolekulare Struktur and die entsprechende Packungsdichte der Moleküle in der Adsorbatschicht für jedes der untersuchten Lösungsmittel präzise eingestellt werden. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss der Konzentration auf die resultierende Anordnung der TMA Moleküle an der LSI durch ein weiteres Experiment abgeschätzt, bei welchem Rühren (von 0 h bis 40 h) der Lösungen mit verschiedenen Lösungsmitteln eingesetzt wurde. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die verschiedenen Präparationsmethoden (Erhöhung der Abscheidetemperatur oder Rühren) zu derselben Tendenz der Änderung der geordneten Strukturen sowie der Packungsdichte führt, weswegen man schlussfolgern kann, dass die Erhöhung der Konzentration an der LSI bei erhöhter Abscheidetemperatur ebenso der Hauptgrund für die beobachteten Änderungen ist. Der zweite Schwerpunkt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung von chemischen Reaktionen der selbstassemblierenden Moleküle. Eine Veresterungsreaktion von TMA mit Undecanol wurde gefunden. Weiterhin wurde, als ein erster Schritt zur Untersuchung der Zwillingspolymerisation, die Oligomerisation des Zwillingsmonomers 2,2’-spirobi [4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) mit STM an der Grenzfläche zwischen der SBS-Undecanol-Lösung und einer Graphitoberfläche untersucht. Erstens wurde durch Ultraschallbehandlung der SBS Lösung in Undecanol für verschieden lange Zeiten die Oligomerisation der SBS Monomere ohne einen Katalysator an der LSI beobachtet. Zweitens konnte die Oligomerisation auch durch Erhöhung der Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung der Moleküle aus der Lösung initiiert werden. Durch die schrittweise Erhöhung der Temperatur des vorgeheizten Substrates konnten mehrere, verschiedene, periodische Anordnungen von Phenol‒Dimeren, ‒Trimeren, und –Pentameren u.s.w. gefunden werden. Weiterhin wird die Auswirkung der Abscheidetemperatur auf die Selbstorganisation an der LSI nur der Lösungsmittelmoleküle aus dem reinen Lösungsmittel beschrieben. Dies ist wichtig, da die Undecanol‒Moleküle stets mit den gelösten, in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Stoffen (TMA, BTP, SBS) koadsorbieren und lineare Muster bilden. / The main aim of this thesis is to study the self-assembly of organic molecules at the liquid-solid interface (LSI). Special emphasis is given to controlling the process of self-assembly via suitable parameters such as: the substrate temperature during the initial deposition, the concentration of dissolved molecules, or the chemical nature of solutes and solvents. The investigations are performed using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The first focus of this work is the systematic investigation of the effect of the substrate temperature during the deposition out of the solution on the self-assembly of complex molecular architectures at the LSI. These investigations have been done with the planar molecule trimesic acid (TMA), and the non-planar molecule benzene 1,3,5-triphosphonic acid (BTP). We show that the polymorphism of the adsorbate structures of TMA (also with BTP) can be controlled by the substrate temperature during the deposition of the molecules out of the solution for various solvents of different polarity such as phenyloctane, octanoic acid, and undecanol. By increasing the temperature of the pre-heated graphite substrate, the specific 2D supramolecular structure and the corresponding packing density in the adsorbate layer can be precisely tuned for each kind of the solvents studied. Furthermore, the influence of the concentration on the resulting self-assembly of TMA molecules at the LSI is estimated by another experiment using stirring (from 0 h to 40 h) of the solutions of different kinds of solvents. These results demonstrate that choosing different preparation methods (increasing deposition temperatures or stirring) lead to the same tendency in the change of the self-assembled structures as well as the tuning of the packing density from which it can also be concluded that the increase of the concentration at increased deposition temperatures is also the main reason for the observed changes. The second focus of this work is the investigation of chemical reactions of self-assembling molecules. The esterification of TMA with undecanol was observed. Moreover as a first step to study twin polymerization, the oligomerization of the twin monomer 2,2’-spirobi [4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) was investigated by STM at the SBS-undecanol solution/graphite interface. Firstly, by ultrasonicating the solution of SBS in undecanol for different times the oligomerization of SBS monomer without any catalyst has been observed at the LSI. Secondly, the oligomerization of SBS monomer can also be initiated by the substrate temperature during the deposition of the molecules out of the solution. By stepwise increasing the temperature of the pre-heated substrate, various periodic assemblies of phenolic dimer, trimer, pentamer resin, and so on were observed. Furthermore, the effect of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of solely solvent molecules from the pure liquid at the LSI is described, which is important because the undecanol solvent molecules are always co-adsorbed with the solutes used in this work (TMA, BTP, SBS) to form linear patterns.

Das Hauptthema dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung der Selbstorganisation organischer Moleküle an der Flüssig-Fest-Grenzfläche (LSI). Besondere Betonung liegt auf der Kontrolle der Selbstassemblierung durch geeignete Parameter: die Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung, die Konzentration der gelösten Moleküle, und die chemische Natur der gelösten Stoffe und Lösungsmittel. Die Untersuchungen wurden unter Verwendung der Rastertunnelmikroskopie (STM) durchgeführt. Der erste Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit ist die systematische Untersuchung der Auswirkung erhöhter Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung aus der Lösung auf die Selbstorganisation komplexer molekularer Architekturen an der LSI. Diese Untersuchungen wurden mit dem planaren Molekül Trimesinsäure (TMA), sowie dem nicht-planaren Molekül Benzen-1,3,5-triphosphonsäure (BTP) durchgeführt. Es wird gezeigt, dass der Polymorphismus der Adsorbatstrukturen von TMA und BTP durch die Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung der Moleküle aus der Lösung für verschiedene Lösungsmitteln unterschiedlicher Polarität, wie Phenyloctan, Octansäure und Undecanol, kontrolliert werden kann. Durch die Erhöhung der Temperatur des vorgeheiztem Graphitsubstrates kann die spezifische 2D supramolekulare Struktur and die entsprechende Packungsdichte der Moleküle in der Adsorbatschicht für jedes der untersuchten Lösungsmittel präzise eingestellt werden. Weiterhin wird der Einfluss der Konzentration auf die resultierende Anordnung der TMA Moleküle an der LSI durch ein weiteres Experiment abgeschätzt, bei welchem Rühren (von 0 h bis 40 h) der Lösungen mit verschiedenen Lösungsmitteln eingesetzt wurde. Diese Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die verschiedenen Präparationsmethoden (Erhöhung der Abscheidetemperatur oder Rühren) zu derselben Tendenz der Änderung der geordneten Strukturen sowie der Packungsdichte führt, weswegen man schlussfolgern kann, dass die Erhöhung der Konzentration an der LSI bei erhöhter Abscheidetemperatur ebenso der Hauptgrund für die beobachteten Änderungen ist. Der zweite Schwerpunkt dieser Dissertation ist die Untersuchung von chemischen Reaktionen der selbstassemblierenden Moleküle. Eine Veresterungsreaktion von TMA mit Undecanol wurde gefunden. Weiterhin wurde, als ein erster Schritt zur Untersuchung der Zwillingspolymerisation, die Oligomerisation des Zwillingsmonomers 2,2’-spirobi [4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) mit STM an der Grenzfläche zwischen der SBS-Undecanol-Lösung und einer Graphitoberfläche untersucht. Erstens wurde durch Ultraschallbehandlung der SBS Lösung in Undecanol für verschieden lange Zeiten die Oligomerisation der SBS Monomere ohne einen Katalysator an der LSI beobachtet. Zweitens konnte die Oligomerisation auch durch Erhöhung der Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung der Moleküle aus der Lösung initiiert werden. Durch die schrittweise Erhöhung der Temperatur des vorgeheizten Substrates konnten mehrere, verschiedene, periodische Anordnungen von Phenol‒Dimeren, ‒Trimeren, und –Pentameren u.s.w. gefunden werden. Weiterhin wird die Auswirkung der Abscheidetemperatur auf die Selbstorganisation an der LSI nur der Lösungsmittelmoleküle aus dem reinen Lösungsmittel beschrieben. Dies ist wichtig, da die Undecanol‒Moleküle stets mit den gelösten, in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Stoffen (TMA, BTP, SBS) koadsorbieren und lineare Muster bilden.:Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Basic principle 2.1 Principles of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) 2.1.1 General working principle 2.1.2 Tunneling effect 2.1.3 Theory of STM 2.1.4 Contrast mechanism of molecular adsorbates 2.1.5 Modes of STM operation 2.2 STM at the liquid-solid interface (LSI) 2.3 Thermodynamics and kinetics 2.3.1 Equilibrium of the adsorption/desorption and initial agglomeration at the LSI 2.3.2 Kinetic and thermodynamic control over 2D molecular self-assembly 2.4 Experimental condition 2.4.1 Role of solvent 2.4.2 Role of concentration 2.4.3 Role of temperature References Chapter 3: Experimental section 3.1 Solutes 3.1.1 Trimesic acid (TMA) (1,3,5?C6H3(COOH)3) 3.1.2 Benzene 1.3.5-Triphosphonic acid (BTP) (1,3,5?C6H3(PO3H2)3) 3.1.3 Twin monomer 2,2’-spirobi[4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) 3.2 Solvents 3.3 Substrate: Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG (0001)) 3.4 Preparation of the STM tips 3.5 Experimental methods for sample preparation 3.5.1 Preparation of the solution 3.5.2 Heating of the substrate 3.5.3 Ultrasonication 3.5.4 Stirring 3.6 Computational details References Chapter 4: Deposition temperature? and solvent-dependent 2D supramolecular assemblies of trimesic acid at the liquid-graphite interface revealed by STM Results and discussion 4.1 Hydrogen bonding motifs of trimesic acid molecules 4.2 TMA deposited from solution in octanoic acid 4.3 TMA deposited from solution in phenyloctane 4.4 TMA deposited from solution in undecanol 4.6 Discussion of the solute–solvent interactions 4.5 Effect of the deposition substrate temperature on the formation of ester at the LSI of TMA in undecanol Conclusion References Chapter 5: Role of concentration on the self-assembly of TMA at the LSI influenced by stirring time Results and discussion 5.1 TMA in octanoic acid 5.2 TMA in phenyloctane 5.3 TMA in undecanol Conclusion References Chapter 6: Role of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of the non-planar molecule benzene- 1,3,5- triphosphonic acid (BTP) at the LSI Results and discussion 6.1 BTP in undecanol at room temperature 6.2 BTP in undecanol at high substrate temperature during deposition Conclusion References Chapter 7: Role of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of pure undecanol solvent at the LSI Results and discussion 7.1 Adsorption geometry of undecanol on HOPG 7.2 Herringbone structures of undecanol 7.3 Parallel structure of undecanol at high substrate temperature during deposition Conclusion References Chapter 8: A first step to microscopically study twinpolymerization: self-assembly of twin monomer 2,2’-Spirobi[4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) at the LSI influenced by ultrasonication and deposition substrate temperature 8.1 Coadsorption of SBS and undecanol without ultrasonication and at room temperature 8.2 SBS deposited from solution in undecanol in dependence on the duration of ultrasonication 8.3 SBS deposited from solution in undecanol at varied deposition temperature of the substrate 8.4 Discussion and open questions Appendix References CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ERKLÄRUNG CURRICULUM VITAE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT / The main aim of this thesis is to study the self-assembly of organic molecules at the liquid-solid interface (LSI). Special emphasis is given to controlling the process of self-assembly via suitable parameters such as: the substrate temperature during the initial deposition, the concentration of dissolved molecules, or the chemical nature of solutes and solvents. The investigations are performed using scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The first focus of this work is the systematic investigation of the effect of the substrate temperature during the deposition out of the solution on the self-assembly of complex molecular architectures at the LSI. These investigations have been done with the planar molecule trimesic acid (TMA), and the non-planar molecule benzene 1,3,5-triphosphonic acid (BTP). We show that the polymorphism of the adsorbate structures of TMA (also with BTP) can be controlled by the substrate temperature during the deposition of the molecules out of the solution for various solvents of different polarity such as phenyloctane, octanoic acid, and undecanol. By increasing the temperature of the pre-heated graphite substrate, the specific 2D supramolecular structure and the corresponding packing density in the adsorbate layer can be precisely tuned for each kind of the solvents studied. Furthermore, the influence of the concentration on the resulting self-assembly of TMA molecules at the LSI is estimated by another experiment using stirring (from 0 h to 40 h) of the solutions of different kinds of solvents. These results demonstrate that choosing different preparation methods (increasing deposition temperatures or stirring) lead to the same tendency in the change of the self-assembled structures as well as the tuning of the packing density from which it can also be concluded that the increase of the concentration at increased deposition temperatures is also the main reason for the observed changes. The second focus of this work is the investigation of chemical reactions of self-assembling molecules. The esterification of TMA with undecanol was observed. Moreover as a first step to study twin polymerization, the oligomerization of the twin monomer 2,2’-spirobi [4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) was investigated by STM at the SBS-undecanol solution/graphite interface. Firstly, by ultrasonicating the solution of SBS in undecanol for different times the oligomerization of SBS monomer without any catalyst has been observed at the LSI. Secondly, the oligomerization of SBS monomer can also be initiated by the substrate temperature during the deposition of the molecules out of the solution. By stepwise increasing the temperature of the pre-heated substrate, various periodic assemblies of phenolic dimer, trimer, pentamer resin, and so on were observed. Furthermore, the effect of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of solely solvent molecules from the pure liquid at the LSI is described, which is important because the undecanol solvent molecules are always co-adsorbed with the solutes used in this work (TMA, BTP, SBS) to form linear patterns.:Chapter 1: Introduction Chapter 2: Basic principle 2.1 Principles of scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) 2.1.1 General working principle 2.1.2 Tunneling effect 2.1.3 Theory of STM 2.1.4 Contrast mechanism of molecular adsorbates 2.1.5 Modes of STM operation 2.2 STM at the liquid-solid interface (LSI) 2.3 Thermodynamics and kinetics 2.3.1 Equilibrium of the adsorption/desorption and initial agglomeration at the LSI 2.3.2 Kinetic and thermodynamic control over 2D molecular self-assembly 2.4 Experimental condition 2.4.1 Role of solvent 2.4.2 Role of concentration 2.4.3 Role of temperature References Chapter 3: Experimental section 3.1 Solutes 3.1.1 Trimesic acid (TMA) (1,3,5?C6H3(COOH)3) 3.1.2 Benzene 1.3.5-Triphosphonic acid (BTP) (1,3,5?C6H3(PO3H2)3) 3.1.3 Twin monomer 2,2’-spirobi[4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) 3.2 Solvents 3.3 Substrate: Highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG (0001)) 3.4 Preparation of the STM tips 3.5 Experimental methods for sample preparation 3.5.1 Preparation of the solution 3.5.2 Heating of the substrate 3.5.3 Ultrasonication 3.5.4 Stirring 3.6 Computational details References Chapter 4: Deposition temperature? and solvent-dependent 2D supramolecular assemblies of trimesic acid at the liquid-graphite interface revealed by STM Results and discussion 4.1 Hydrogen bonding motifs of trimesic acid molecules 4.2 TMA deposited from solution in octanoic acid 4.3 TMA deposited from solution in phenyloctane 4.4 TMA deposited from solution in undecanol 4.6 Discussion of the solute–solvent interactions 4.5 Effect of the deposition substrate temperature on the formation of ester at the LSI of TMA in undecanol Conclusion References Chapter 5: Role of concentration on the self-assembly of TMA at the LSI influenced by stirring time Results and discussion 5.1 TMA in octanoic acid 5.2 TMA in phenyloctane 5.3 TMA in undecanol Conclusion References Chapter 6: Role of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of the non-planar molecule benzene- 1,3,5- triphosphonic acid (BTP) at the LSI Results and discussion 6.1 BTP in undecanol at room temperature 6.2 BTP in undecanol at high substrate temperature during deposition Conclusion References Chapter 7: Role of deposition temperature on the self-assembly of pure undecanol solvent at the LSI Results and discussion 7.1 Adsorption geometry of undecanol on HOPG 7.2 Herringbone structures of undecanol 7.3 Parallel structure of undecanol at high substrate temperature during deposition Conclusion References Chapter 8: A first step to microscopically study twinpolymerization: self-assembly of twin monomer 2,2’-Spirobi[4H-1,3,2-benzo-dioxasiline] (SBS) at the LSI influenced by ultrasonication and deposition substrate temperature 8.1 Coadsorption of SBS and undecanol without ultrasonication and at room temperature 8.2 SBS deposited from solution in undecanol in dependence on the duration of ultrasonication 8.3 SBS deposited from solution in undecanol at varied deposition temperature of the substrate 8.4 Discussion and open questions Appendix References CHAPTER 9: SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK ERKLÄRUNG CURRICULUM VITAE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In this thesis the oxidation of monoterpenes by O3 and NO2 and factors that influenced the oxidation were studied. In the environment both ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are present as oxidising gases, which causes sampling artefacts when using Tenax TA as an adsorbent to sample organic compounds in the air. A scrubber was developed to remove O3 and NO2 prior to the sampling tube, and artefacts during sampling were minimised when using the scrubber. The main organic compounds sampled in this thesis were two monoterpenes, alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene, due to their presence in both indoor and outdoor air. The recovery of the monoterpenes through the scrubber varied between 75-97% at relative humidities of 15-75%. The reactions of alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene with O 3, NO2 and nitric oxide (NO) at different relative humidities (RHs) and reaction times were studied in a dark reaction chamber. The experiments were planned and performed according to an experimental design were the factors influencing the reaction (O3, NO2, NO, RH and reaction times) were varied between high and low levels. In the experiments up to 13% of the monoterpenes reacted when O3, NO2, and reaction time were at high levels, and NO, and RH were at low levels. In the evaluation eight and seven factors (including both single and interaction factors) were found to influence the amount of alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene reacted, respectively. The three most influencing factors for both of the monoterpenes were the O 3 level, the reaction time, and the RH. Increased O3 level and reaction time increased the amount of monoterpene reacted, and increased RH decreased the amount reacted. A theoretical model of the reactions occurring in the reaction chamber was created. The amount of monoterpene reacted at different initial settings of O3, NO2, and NO were calculated, as well as the influence of different reaction pathways, and the concentrations of O3 and NO2, and NO at specific reaction times. The results of the theoretical model were that the reactivity of the gas mixture towards alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene was underestimated. But, the calculated concentrations of O3, NO2, and NO in the theoretical model were found to correspond to a high degree with experimental results performed under similar conditions. The possible associations between organic compounds in indoor air, building variables and the presence of sick building syndrome were studied using principal component analysis. The most complex model was able to separate 71% of the “sick” buildings from the “healthy” buildings. The most important variables that separated the “sick” buildings from the “healthy” buildings were a more frequent occurrence or a higher concentration of compounds with shorter retention times in the “sick” buildings. The outcome of this thesis could be summarised as follows; - - - -

The increase in electric vehicles and photovoltaic power production may introduce problems to the low-voltage distribution grid. With a higher number of electric vehicles, their accumulated charging power might breach the lowest allowed voltage level of the grid. Photovoltaic-modules can on the other hand exceed the highest allowed voltage level, by producing high accumulated power when the solar irradiance is high. Normally, electric distribution companies in Sweden reinforce the existing grid with more resilient infrastructure, such as stronger and larger cables or transformer stations. This is however a costly and time-consuming solution, which could be solved by using alternative means such as already existing resources. This Master's Thesis investigates how smart charging of batteries can support the low-voltage electrical grid with the increase in electric vehicles and photovoltaic power production. To do this, an optimization tool has been developed in Matlab. An existing model of a low-voltage grid is combined with the developed tool, where controllable batteries and photovoltaic-modules can be placed at specific households in the grid. The controllable batteries belong to either electric vehicles or stationary battery systems, and are intended to support the grid by the means of either reducing peak load powers, voltage variations, or a trade-off between them. Furthermore, this thesis investigates the maximum electric vehicle capability for a specific low-voltage electrical grid in Sweden. From the results, it can be concluded that smart charging of batteries can reduce the peak loads as well as voltage variations. The reduction of voltage variations for the entire low-voltage grid is greatest during the summer, when photovoltaic production generally is at its highest. The results also show that a stationary battery system can reduce the voltage variations to a greater extent, compared to an electric vehicle. Also, the introduction of multiple controllable batteries allows further support of the low-voltage grid. Regarding the maximum electric vehicle capability, the results show that the placement of the vehicles and the charging power strongly affect the maximum number of electric vehicles the low-voltage grid can manage. / Ökningen av elbilar och elproduktion från solceller kan ge problem i lågspänningsnätet. Med ett ökat antal elbilar kan den sammanlagrade effekten vid laddning underskrida den minsta tillåtna spänningsnivån i nätet. Solpaneler kan däremot leda till att den högsta tillåtna spänningsnivån överskrids, genom att producera en hög sammanlagrad effekt när solstrålningen är som högst. Vanligtvis förstärker elnätsbolag i Sverige det befintliga nätet med motståndskraftigare infrastruktur, såsom kraftigare och större kablar eller transformatorstationer. Detta är dock en kostsam och tidskrävande lösning, som skulle kunna lösas med alternativa medel, till exempel redan existerande resurser. Detta examensarbete undersöker hur smart laddning av batterier kan ge stöd till lågspänningsnätet, med en ökning av elbilar samt solcellsproduktion. För att undersöka detta har ett optimeringsverktyg utvecklats i Matlab. En befintlig modell av ett lågspänningsnät har kombinerats med det utvecklade optimeringsverktyget, där styrbara batterier samt solcellsproduktion kan placeras vid specifika hushåll i elnätet. De styrbara batterierna är antingen elbilar eller stationära batterisystem, och är ämnade till att stödja lågspänningsnätet genom att antingen reducera effekttoppar, spänningsvariationer eller en kompromiss av båda. Vidare undersöker detta examensarbete det maximala antalet elbilar som ett specifikt lågspänningsnät i Sverige kan hantera. Resultaten visar att smart laddning av batterier kan reducera effekttoppar samt spänningsvariationer. Reduceringen av spänningsvariationerna för hela lågspänningsnätet visar sig vara högst under sommaren, vilket är då solcellsproduktionen generellt är som högst. Resultaten visar även att stationära batterisystem kan reducera spänningsvariationer ytterligare, jämfört med en elbil. Att introducera flera styrbara batterier tillåter ett ännu större stöd till lågspänningsnätet. Angående det maximala antalet av elbilar som ett lågspänningsnät kan hantera visade resultaten att placeringen av elbilarna samt laddningseffekten har en stor påverkan.

<p>In this thesis the oxidation of monoterpenes by O3 and NO2 and factors that influenced the oxidation were studied. In the environment both ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are present as oxidising gases, which causes sampling artefacts when using Tenax TA as an adsorbent to sample organic compounds in the air. A scrubber was developed to remove O3 and NO2 prior to the sampling tube, and artefacts during sampling were minimised when using the scrubber. The main organic compounds sampled in this thesis were two monoterpenes, alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene, due to their presence in both indoor and outdoor air. The recovery of the monoterpenes through the scrubber varied between 75-97% at relative humidities of 15-75%.</p><p>The reactions of alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene with O 3, NO2 and nitric oxide (NO) at different relative humidities (RHs) and reaction times were studied in a dark reaction chamber. The experiments were planned and performed according to an experimental design were the factors influencing the reaction (O3, NO2, NO, RH and reaction times) were varied between high and low levels. In the experiments up to 13% of the monoterpenes reacted when O3, NO2, and reaction time were at high levels, and NO, and RH were at low levels. In the evaluation eight and seven factors (including both single and interaction factors) were found to influence the amount of alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene reacted, respectively. The three most influencing factors for both of the monoterpenes were the O 3 level, the reaction time, and the RH. Increased O3 level and reaction time increased the amount of monoterpene reacted, and increased RH decreased the amount reacted.</p><p>A theoretical model of the reactions occurring in the reaction chamber was created. The amount of monoterpene reacted at different initial settings of O3, NO2, and NO were calculated, as well as the influence of different reaction pathways, and the concentrations of O3 and NO2, and NO at specific reaction times. The results of the theoretical model were that the reactivity of the gas mixture towards alfa-pinene and delta-3-carene was underestimated. But, the calculated concentrations of O3, NO2, and NO in the theoretical model were found to correspond to a high degree with experimental results performed under similar conditions. The possible associations between organic compounds in indoor air, building variables and the presence of sick building syndrome were studied using principal component analysis. The most complex model was able to separate 71% of the “sick” buildings from the “healthy” buildings. The most important variables that separated the “sick” buildings from the “healthy” buildings were a more frequent occurrence or a higher concentration of compounds with shorter retention times in the “sick” buildings.</p><p>The outcome of this thesis could be summarised as follows;</p><p>-</p><p>-</p><p>-</p><p>-</p>

<p>The principal aim was to study selected aspects of indoor environment in dwellings and their association with symptoms compatible with the sick building syndrome (SBS). A validated questionnaire was developed specifically for residential indoor investigations, using sociological principles and test procedures. The questionnaire was mailed to 14,243 multi-family dwellings in Stockholm, selected by stratified random sampling. Females, subjects with a history of atopy, those above 65 y, and those in new buildings reported more symptoms. Subjects owning their own dwelling had less symptoms. A multiple regression model was developed, to identify residential buildings with a higher than expected occurrence of SBS. In total, 28.5% reported at least one sign of building dampness in their home (condensation on windows, humidity in the bathroom, mouldy odour, water leakage). All indicators of dampness were related to symptoms, even when adjusting for demographic data, and other building characteristics (OR=2.9-6.0). Associations between symptoms and other building data was evaluated in older houses, built before 1961. Subjects in older buildings with a mechanical ventilation system had fewer symptoms. Heating by electric radiators, and wood heating was associated with an increase of most types of symptoms (OR=1.2-5.0). Multiple sealing measures (OR=1.3), and major reconstruction (OR=1.1-1.9), was associated with an increase of symptoms. The effect of seasonal adapted ventilation (SAV) was studied in a small experimental study. A 20% reduction of ventilation flow from 0.5-0.8 ac/h to 0.4-0.5 ACH during the heating season increased the perception of poor indoor air quality in the dwelling in general, and in the bedroom. In conclusion, low building age, and building dampness in the dwelling are associated with SBS. In older houses, mechanical ventilation is beneficial. The thesis did not support the view that energy saving measures in general is an important risk factor for SBS, but major reconstruction and multiple sealing measures can be risk factor for symptoms. Reducing the outdoor ventilation flow below the current Swedish ventilation standard (0.5 ACH) may increase the perception of impaired air quality. </p>

The principal aim was to study selected aspects of indoor environment in dwellings and their association with symptoms compatible with the sick building syndrome (SBS). A validated questionnaire was developed specifically for residential indoor investigations, using sociological principles and test procedures. The questionnaire was mailed to 14,243 multi-family dwellings in Stockholm, selected by stratified random sampling. Females, subjects with a history of atopy, those above 65 y, and those in new buildings reported more symptoms. Subjects owning their own dwelling had less symptoms. A multiple regression model was developed, to identify residential buildings with a higher than expected occurrence of SBS. In total, 28.5% reported at least one sign of building dampness in their home (condensation on windows, humidity in the bathroom, mouldy odour, water leakage). All indicators of dampness were related to symptoms, even when adjusting for demographic data, and other building characteristics (OR=2.9-6.0). Associations between symptoms and other building data was evaluated in older houses, built before 1961. Subjects in older buildings with a mechanical ventilation system had fewer symptoms. Heating by electric radiators, and wood heating was associated with an increase of most types of symptoms (OR=1.2-5.0). Multiple sealing measures (OR=1.3), and major reconstruction (OR=1.1-1.9), was associated with an increase of symptoms. The effect of seasonal adapted ventilation (SAV) was studied in a small experimental study. A 20% reduction of ventilation flow from 0.5-0.8 ac/h to 0.4-0.5 ACH during the heating season increased the perception of poor indoor air quality in the dwelling in general, and in the bedroom. In conclusion, low building age, and building dampness in the dwelling are associated with SBS. In older houses, mechanical ventilation is beneficial. The thesis did not support the view that energy saving measures in general is an important risk factor for SBS, but major reconstruction and multiple sealing measures can be risk factor for symptoms. Reducing the outdoor ventilation flow below the current Swedish ventilation standard (0.5 ACH) may increase the perception of impaired air quality.

This item contains the agenda, minutes, and attachments for the Faculty Senate meeting on this date. There may be additional materials from the meeting available at the Faculty Center.

Small Businesses (SBs) in the city of Tshwane increasingly engage in export activities due to higher growth rates. The South African government recognises the significance of SBs, resulting in support programmes to increase involvement in export markets. However, SBs still face export challenges from internal and external sources. This study explored export involvement processes of SBs in the City of Tshwane. 20 participants took part in a qualitative data collection method using observation and semi-structured interviews. Atlas.ti software was used to analyse the data. Findings suggest that SBs are confronted with varying constraints affecting commitment in export involvement processes. Low levels of awareness and participation in export programmes make it difficult to determine their contribution to the export involvement of SBs. Recommendations are for an evaluation of government export programmes accompanied by export education and training programmes to ensure that SBs achieve desirable outcome of export involvement in various export markets. / Business Management / M. Com. (Business Management)

[EN] Fiber grating sensors and devices have demonstrated outstanding capabilities in both telecommunications and sensing areas, due to their well-known advantageous characteristics. Therefore, one of the most important motivations lies in the potential of customized fiber gratings to be suitably employed for improving the interrogation process of optical fiber sensors and systems. This Ph.D. dissertation is focused on the study, design, fabrication and performance evaluation of customized fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) and long period gratings (LPGs) with the double aim to present novel sensing technologies and to enhance the response of existing sensing systems. In this context, a technique based on time-frequency domain analysis has been studied and applied to interrogate different kind of FBGs-based sensors. The distribution of the central wavelength along the sensing structures has been demonstrated, based on a combination of frequency scanning of the interrogating optical pulse and optical time-domain reflectometry (OTDR), allowing the detection of spot events with good performance in terms of measurand resolution. Moreover, different customized FBGs have been interrogated using a technology inspired on the operation principle of microwave photonics (MWP) filters, enabling the detection of spot events using radio-frequency (RF) devices with modest bandwidth. The sensing capability of these technological platforms has been fruitfully employed for implementing a large scale quasi-distributed sensor, based on an array of cascaded FBGs. The potentiality of LPGs as fiber optic sensors has also been investigated in a new fashion, exploiting the potentials of MWP filtering techniques. Besides, a novel approach for simultaneous measurements based on a half-coated LPG has been proposed and demonstrated. Finally, the feasibility of FBGs as selective wavelength filters has been exploited in sensing applications; an alternative approach to improve the response and performance of Brillouin distributed fiber sensors has been studied and validated via experiments. The performance of the reported sensing platforms have been analyzed and evaluated so as to characterize their impact on the fiber sensing field and to ultimately identify the use of the most suitable technology depending on the processing task to be carried out and on the final goal to reach. / [ES] Los sensores y dispositivos en fibra basados en redes de difracción han mostrado excepcionales capacidades en el ámbito de las telecomunicaciones y del sensado, gracias a sus excelentes propiedades. Entre las motivaciones más estimulantes destaca la posibilidad de fabricar redes de difracción ad-hoc para implementar y/o mejorar las prestaciones de los sensores fotónicos. Esta tesis doctoral se ha enfocado en el estudio, diseño, fabricación y evaluación de las prestaciones de redes de difracción de Bragg (FBGs) y de redes de difracción de periodo largo (LPGs) personalizadas con el fin de desarrollar nuevas plataformas de detección y a la vez mejorar la respuesta y las prestaciones de los sensores fotónicos ya existentes. En este contexto, una técnica basada en el análisis tiempofrecuencia se ha estudiado e implementado para la interrogación de sensores en fibra basados en varios tipos y modelos de FBGs. Se ha analizado la distribución de la longitud de onda central a lo largo de la estructura de sensado, gracias a una metodología que conlleva el escaneo en frecuencia del pulso óptico incidente y la técnica conocida como reflectometria óptica en el dominio del tiempo (OTDR). De esta manera se ha llevado a cabo la detección de eventos puntuales, alcanzando muy buenas prestaciones en términos de resolución de la magnitud a medir. Además, se han interrogado varias FBGs a través de una técnica basada en el principio de operación de los filtros de fotónica de microondas (MWP), logrando así la detección de eventos puntuales usando dispositivos de radio-frecuencia (RF) caracterizados por un moderado ancho de banda. La capacidad de sensado de estas plataformas tecnológicas ha sido aprovechada para la realización de un sensor quasi-distribuido de gran alcance, formado por una estructura en cascada de muchas FBGs. Por otro lado, se han puesto a prueba las capacidades de las LPGs como sensores ópticos según un enfoque novedoso; para ello se han aprovechados las potencialidades de los filtros de MWP. Asimismo, se ha estudiado y demostrado un nuevo método para medidas simultáneas de dos parámetros, basado en una LPG parcialmente recubierta por una película polimérica. Finalmente, se ha explotado la viabilidad de las FBGs en cuanto al filtrado selectivo en longitud de onda para aplicaciones de sensado; para ello se ha propuesto un sistema alternativo para la mejora de la respuesta y de las prestaciones de sensores ópticos distribuidos basados en el scattering de Brillouin. En conclusión, se han analizado y evaluado las prestaciones de las plataformas de sensado propuestas para caracterizar su impacto en el ámbito de los sistemas de detección por fibra y además identificar el uso de la tecnología más adecuada dependiendo de la tarea a desarrollar y del objetivo a alcanzar. / [CA] Els sensors i dispositius en fibra basats en xarxes de difracció han mostrat excepcionals capacitats en l'àmbit de les telecomunicacions i del sensat, gràcies a les seus excel¿lents propietats. Entre les motivacions més estimulants destaca la possibilitat de fabricar xarxes de difracció ad-hoc per a implementar i/o millorar les prestacions de sensors fotònics. Esta tesi doctoral s'ha enfocat en l'estudi, disseny, fabricació i avaluació de les prestacions de xarxes de difracció de Bragg (FBGs) i de xarxes de difracció de període llarg (LPGs) personalitzades per tal de desenvolupar noves plataformes de detecció i al mateix temps millorar la resposta i les prestacions dels sensors fotònics ja existents. En este context, una tècnica basada en l'anàlisi temps-freqüència s'ha estudiat i implementat per a la interrogació de sensors en fibra basats en diversos tipus i models de FBGs. S'ha analitzat la distribució de la longitud d'ona central al llarg de l'estructura de sensat, gràcies a una metodologia que comporta l'escaneig en freqüència del pols òptic incident i la tècnica coneguda com reflectometria òptica en el domini del temps (OTDR). D'esta manera s'ha dut a terme la detecció d'esdeveniments puntuals, aconseguint molt bones prestacions en termes de resolució de la magnitud a mesurar. A més, s'han interrogat diverses FBGs a través d'una tècnica basada en el principi d'operació dels filtres de fotònica de microones (MWP), aconseguint així la detecció d'esdeveniments puntuals utilitzant dispositius de ràdio-freqüència (RF) caracteritzats per un moderat ample de banda. La capacitat de sensat d'aquestes plataformes tecnològiques ha sigut aprofitada per a la realització d'un sensor quasi-distribuït a llarga escala, format per una estructura en cascada de moltes FBGs. D'altra banda, s'han posat a prova les capacitats de les LPGs com a sensors òptics segons un enfocament nou; per a això s'han aprofitat les potencialitats dels filtres de MWP. Així mateix, s'ha estudiat i demostrat un nou mètode per a mesures simultànies de dos paràmetres, basat en una LPG parcialment recoberta per una pel¿lícula polimèrica. Finalment, s'ha explotat la viabilitat de les FBGs pel que fa al filtrat selectiu en longitud d'ona per a aplicacions de sensat; per això s'ha proposat un sistema alternatiu per a la millora de la resposta i de les prestacions de sensors òptics distribuïts basats en el scattering de Brillouin. S'han analitzat i avaluat les prestacions de les plataformes de sensat propostes per a caracteritzar el seu impacte en l'àmbit dels sistemes de detecció per fibra i a més identificar l'ús de la tecnologia més adequada depenent de la tasca a desenvolupar i de l'objectiu a assolir. / Ricchiuti, AL. (2016). Design and fabrication of customized fiber gratings to improve the interrogation of optical fiber sensors [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/66343 / TESIS / Premios Extraordinarios de tesis doctorales