A tribo Omocerini, proposta por Hincks, inclui atualmente sete gêneros (Canistra Erichson, Carlobruchia Spaeth, Cassidinoma Hincks, Cyclosoma Guérin-Meneville, Discomorpha Chevrolat, Omocerus Chevrolat e Polychalca Chevrolat), 17 subgêneros e 147 espécies. Considerando que os estudos filogenéticos de Cassidinae nunca incluíram todos os gêneros e subgêneros da tribo e que sinonímias e mudanças taxonômicas vêm sendo propostas sem embasamento filogenético, este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a monofilia da tribo e propor hipóteses sobre as relações entre seus gêneros e subgêneros e testar a validade dos mesmos. Foram analisadas 46 espécies de Omocerini como grupo-interno e 14 espécies de outras seis tribos de Cassidinae como grupo-externo, utilizando 230 caracteres morfológicos (200 referentes a adultos e 30 a imaturos). A análise filogenética com pesos iguais resultou em nove árvores igualmente parcimoniosas com 1101 passos. Na análise com pesagem implícita dos caracteres (K=3) apenas uma árvore foi encontrada. As árvores resultantes de todas as análises corroboram a monofilia da tribo Omocerini com base em 13 sinapomorfias (seis exclusivas). O grupo-irmão de Omocerini é o clado que representa a tribo Stolaini (Mesomphalia gibbosa (Chelymorpha cribraria + Stolas lacordairei)), hipótese de relacionamento nunca proposta anteriormente. As relações encontradas entre os grandes grupos de Omocerini foram: ((Carlobruchia (Cassidinoma (\"Polychalca\" + \"Omocerus\"))) + (Canistra (\"Cyclosoma\" + \"Discomorpha\"))). Os gêneros Cyclosoma, Discomorpha, Omocerus e Polychalca são parafiléticos. Canistra apresenta-se monofilético e grupo-irmão de (\"Cyclosoma\" + \"Discomorpha\"). Carlobruchia é considerado monofilético baseado na análise com pesagem implícita, sendo grupo-irmão de: (Cassidinoma (\"Polychalca\" + \"Omocerus\")). Polychalca foi considerado sinônimo junior de Omocerus e Discomorpha sinônimo junior de Cyclosoma e apenas os sinônimos senior foram considerados válidos. A monofilia dos subgêneros de Omocerini não é suportada nas análises realizadas, portanto, estes não devem ser utilizados como agrupamentos taxonômicos. / The tribe Omocerini, proposed by Hincks, currently comprises seven genera (Canistra Erichson, Carlobruchia Spaeth, Cassidinoma Hincks, Cyclosoma Guerin- Meneville, Discomorpha Chevrolat, Omocerus Chevrolat e Polychalca Chevrolat), 17 subgenera, and 147 species. Given that phylogenetic studies of Cassidinae have never included data regarding all genera and subgenera of the tribe, and synonymization and taxonomic category changes have been proposed without phylogenetic basis, this study aims to evaluate the monophyly of Omocerini based on morphological characters, propose a relationship hypothesis between its genera and subgenera and test their validity. Forty six species of Omocerini were included as ingroup and 14 species of six tribes of Cassidinae representing the outgroup, were analyzed based in 230 morphological characters 200 from adults and 30 from immature). The phylogenetic analysis with equal weighting of the characters yielded nine fundamental trees with 1101 steps. The analysis under implied weighting (k=3) resulted in a single most fit cladogram. The monophyly of the tribe was corroborated in all analysis, with 13 sinapomorphies (six exclusive) supporting it. The sister-group of Omocerini is the clade representing the Stolaini (Mesomphalia gibbosa (Chelymorpha cribraria + Stolas lacordairei)), a relationship hypothesis never proposed before. The relationships obtained between the subunits of Omocerini were: ((Carlobruchia (Cassidinoma (\"Polychalca\" + \"Omocerus\"))) + (Canistra (\"Cyclosoma\" + \"Discomorpha\"))). The genera Cyclosoma, Discomorpha, Omocerus and Polychalca are paraphyletic. Canistra is monophyletic and as the sistergroup of (\"Cyclosoma\" + \"Discomorpha\"). Carlobruchia is considered monophyletic based on the analysis under implied weighting and is sister-group of (Cassidinoma (\"Polychalca\" + \"Omocerus\")). Polychalca is considered a junior synonym of Omocerus and Discomorpha a junior synonym of Cyclosoma, and only the senior synonyms were considered valid. The monophyly of the subgenera of Omocerini were not supported by the analysis, therefore these should not be used as taxonomic groupings.

This essay is a corpus study, the aim of which is to investigate the usage of two near-synonymous verb pairs that descend from Germanic and Romance languages. The four verbs begin, commence, hate, and detest were chosen for the study. The analysis is based on occurrences of the verbs in five subcorpora in the COBUILDDIRECT corpus; two subcorpora consist of British and American books and three subcorpora are composed of British and Australian newspapers. Occurrences were also collected from the novel Wuthering Heights (1847) by Emily Brontë. The primary aims of the essay are to investigate the frequency and occurrence of the verbs in different text types as well as in British and American books, to reveal if the verbs are synonymous and whether they occur with the same collocates. Furthermore, the novel Wuthering Heights gives a diachronic view of the usage of the verbs. This analysis suggests that a usage of the verbs of Germanic origin is more frequent than the verbs of Romance origin. The Romance verbs are more common in novels and books, but also in the British newspaper The Times. Furthermore, the usage of commence and detest seems to be restricted to certain contexts which are connected to the field of the English language in which the verbs occurred at first. The Germanic verbs are clearly favoured in all kinds of texts investigated, even though Wuthering Heights has a high number of occurrences of commence. On the topic of synonymy, begin and commence have been found to be further apart from each other than hate and detest. This is due to the fact that begin and commence are constructed grammatically different, as well as a restriction in contextual usage of commence. Despite this, commence is used more freely in American books than in British books. The synonymy of hate and detest is connected to the fact that detest expresses a stronger feeling than hate, which makes the two verbs near-synonymous but also gradable. The verbs in the two pairs also collocate with different words, which underlines that they are not real synonyms. These findings support the claim that one should not call the verb pairs synonyms but near-synonyms, and that one has to be careful when choosing a verb.

Sense relations, traditionally regarded as primarily paradigmatic, have been shown to carry syntagmatic implications. The present thesis explores intrasentential synonym co-occurrence in order to identify characteristic patterns of such co-occurrence and to explain it with reference to the functions it performs in discourse. The theoretical part provides an overview of both general treatments of synonymy and the studies that deal with co-occurring synonyms. The analysis itself is based on two hundred and thirty sentences retrieved from the British national corpus that contain pairs of co-occurring adjectival synonyms such as confident-sure, faithful-loyal or brave-courageous. The findings suggest that adjectival synonyms co-occurring in the same sentence are typically coordinated (60% of analysed sentences) in order to signal semantic inclusiveness (e.g. a covetous and grasping man). Minor patterns of synonym co-occurrence, which accounted for 2% of the analysed sentences, include the scalar pattern (e.g. smooth, nearly urbane) and the negated pattern (e.g. cruel, not savage). The remaining sentences featured synonyms which did not form distinct patterns and were, accordingly, classified as instances of variation as their co-occurrence is likely to have been influenced by a desire to avoid...

In Meaning as Species, Mark Richard provides an argument to the conclusion that stipulation can transiently create perfect intralinguistic synonymy. The key to achieve this is the notion of meaning as "abstracted common ground” (ACG). In this thesis, I argue that Richard’s argument is not enough to ensure the existence of perfect synonymy. It remains possible to coin a new term, stipulate that it has the same meaning(-cum-ACG) as a previous one, and yet make the case that the coined term is only an instance of the original term. This is important if we use a notion of perfect synonymy for which it is necessary, for two words to be synonyms, that they are different words. To defend my claim, I deal with two distinct notions of perfect synonymy, the criterion of equinormality, and the distinction between word-instances and word-types.

A taxonomic synopsis of Philippine Cyrtandra (Gesneriaceae) is presented. Following a study of 138 published names and their types, we accept 98 Cyrtandra species for the Philippine flora. Except for C. angularis, C. elatostemoides, and C. yaeyamae, all are endemic to the country. Lectotypes or neotypes are designated for all names for which this is necessary, except for six names for which we were unable to locate original material. We also validate a species name that was previously described without a Latin diagnosis (C. peninsula), synonymize three names, and provide taxonomic notes for each species. In addition, we propose two replacement names for taxa for which a legitimate name in Cyrtandra does not currently exist: C. edanoi for a Philippine species and C. siporensis for a Sumatran species. A look-up table is provided to facilitate referencing of currently accepted names in Philippine Cyrtandra.

O gênero Mallodeta Butler, exclusivamente neotropical, contava, no início deste estudo, com seis espécies: M. clavata (Walker) (espécie-tipo), M. sortita (Walker), M. consors (Walker), M. sanguipuncta Druce, M. cubana Gaede e M. simplex Rothschild. Estas espécies, mais Phoenicoprocta parthenii (Fabricius), outrora também considerada integrante daquele gênero, foram estudadas quanto às suas relações filogenéticas. A hipótese de monofiletismo de Mallodeta não foi corroborada, sendo as espécies historicamente associadas ao gênero doravante consideradas pertencentes a três clados: (i) Mallodeta, composto unicamente por sua espécie-tipo; (ii) Rezia Kirby gen. reval., composto por R. sortita comb. nov., R. consors comb. nov. e R. sanguipuncta, além de R. cardinale (Hampson), R. erythrarchos (Walker) comb. nov., R. cruenta (Perty) comb. nov. e R. hanga (Herrich-Schäffer) comb. nov., previamente tratadas em Cosmosoma Hübner; (iii) Antilleana gen. nov., composto por A. parthenii comb. nov., A. jamaicensis (Schaus) comb. nov., A. capistrata (Fabricius) comb. nov. e A. carminata (Hampson) comb. nov., todas anteriormente alocadas em Phoenicoprocta Druce. Dentre as conclusões taxonômicas, M. simplex foi tratada como sin. nov. de M. clavata, Glaucopis (Erruca) deyrolii Walker, 1854 sin. nov. de Rezia sortita, Laemocharis ignicolor Ménétriés sin. nov. de Rezia erythrarchos e M. cubana sin. nov. de A. capistrata. Todas as espécies tratadas no presente estudo foram redescritas, ilustradas e tiveram sua distribuição geográfica elucidada. / At the beginning of this study the genus Mallodeta Butler, exclusively neotropical, comprised six species: M. clavata (Walker) (type species), M. sortita (Walker), M. consors (Walker), M. sanguipuncta Druce, M. cubana Gaede and M. simplex Rothschild. These species besides Phoenicoprocta parthenii (Fabricius), formerly considered part of Mallodeta, had their phylogenetic relationships elucidated. The monophyly of Mallodeta was not corroborated, and the species historicaly associated to it should be considered, from now on, belonging to three different clades: (i) Mallodeta, composed exclusively by its type species; (ii) Rezia Kirby rev. gen, comprising R. sortita n. comb., R. consors n. comb. and R. sanguipuncta, plus R. cardinale (Hampson), R. erythrarchos (Walker) n. comb., R. cruenta (Perty) n. comb. and R. hanga (Herrich-Schäffer) n. comb., previously treated in the genus Cosmosoma Hübner; (iii) Antilleana n. gen., comprised by A. parthenii n. comb., A. jamaicensis (Schaus) n. comb., A. capistrata (Fabricius) n. comb. and A. carminata (Hampson) n. comb., formerly treated in Phoenicoprocta Druce. Among taxonomic conclusions we discovered M. simplex to be a n. syn. of M. clavata, Glaucopis (Erruca) deyrolii Walker, 1854 n. syn of Rezia sortita, Laemocharis ignicolor Ménétriés n. syn of Rezia erythrarchos and M. cubana n. syn. of A. capistrata. All species studied were redescribed, illustrated and had their geographical distribution elucidated.

Vespidae possui aproximadamente 5000 espécies, sendo 3500 dessas são eumeníneos. Zethus é o maior gênero de Eumeninae, com mais de 250 espécies no mundo. Atualmente, encontra-se dividido em quatro subgêneros: Z. (Zethus), Z. (Zethusculus), Z. (Zethoides) e Z. (Madecazethus). Z. (Zethoides), com 42 espécies, se destaca por construir ninhos expostos e apresentar comportamento subsocial. Essas espécies encontram-se divididas em oito grupos, cada qual uma unidade filogenética natural que, porém, foram criados sem qualquer análise filogenética. Exemplares de 18 espécies de Z. (Zethoides), correspondentes aos grupos foram examinadas junto com terminais de outras linhagens de Zethus, Zethini e Eumeninae para elaboração de uma análise cladística afim de averiguar as divisões elaboradas. Todos os grupos de espécies foram recuperados como monofiléticos, exceto Z. bilgumis, que é parafilético em relação ao grupo Z. clypearis. Z. (Zethoides), apesar de monofilético, junto com Z. (Madecazethus), situa-se dentro de Zethus s. s. Z. (Zethusculus) também não foi recuperado como monofilético. Zethus é parafilético em relação aCtenochilus. Assim, o grupo Z. clypearisnão foi recuperado e seus integrantes pertencem agora ao grupo Z. biglumis, e as seguinte sinonímias serão propostas: Ctenochilus (=Zethus); Z. (Madecazethus) (=Z. (Zethus)); Z. (Zethoides) (=Z. (Zethus)). / Vespidae has approximately 5000 species, of which 3500 are eumenines. Zethus is the largest genus in Eumeninae, with over 250 species. Currently, it is divided in four subgenera: Z. (Zethus), Z. (Zethusculus), Z. (Zethoides) and Z. (Madecazethus). Z. (Zethoides), with 42 species, stands out for building exposed nests and presenting subsocial behavior. These species are further divided in eight groups, each considered a phylogenetic unit that were created without any phylogenetic analysis. Eighteen species of Z. (Zethoides) corresponding to different groups were examined, altogether with terminals fromdistict lineages of Zethus, Zethini and Eumenine, in order to elaborate a cladistics analysis to verify the proposed divisions. All species groups were monophyletic except for the Z. biglumis group, that is paraphyletic in relation to the Z. clypearis group. Z. (Zethoides), although monophyletic as Z. (Madecazethus), is placed within Zethus s. s. Z. (Zethusculus) was also retrieved paraphyletic. Thus, the Z. clypearis group is dismantled, and its integrates are incorporated in the Z. biglumis group. Also, the following synonymies will be proposed: Ctenochilus (=Zethus); Z. (Madecazethus) (=Z. (Zethus)); Z. (Zethoides) (=Z. (Zethus)).

<p>This corpus based investigation deals with the present-day usage of and the semantic relation between the two verbs rise and arise. Concordance lines containing various forms of the two verbs in question have been taken from six different (sub)corpora and were examined in view of their collocational and semantic characteristics. The basic aims were to investigate the nowadays status of the verbs rise and arise and whether they (still) can be regarded as synonyms. The results show that both verbs can sometimes be used synonymously. Their general semantic relation appeared to be near-synonymy. Furthermore, both verbs seem to have developed a semantic specialisation, which is regarded a counterargument for the thesis that the verb arise is on the verge of dying out.</p>

Le pouvoir est un élément clef dans l’œuvre de Zola, qui a été le premier à prendre pour sujet d’un roman le pouvoir politique dans Son Excellence Eugène Rougon. Aussi proposons-nous dans cette thèse l’étude du substantif pouvoir, qui est un mot abstrait, à la polysémie remarquable.La première partie est une étude lexicologique et lexicographique du substantif pouvoir en langue. L’étude lexicologique présente à partir des notions de base de la sémantique lexicale, la polysémie, le champ synonymique, le contexte et les connotations de pouvoir. L’étude lexicographique permet de suivre l’évolution de ce déverbal du point de vue diachronique depuis sa première acception attestée en 842, en distinguant ses différents sens en ancien français, en français préclassique, en français classique, en français moderne et en français contemporain.Le substantif pouvoir est ensuite étudié en discours dans le cycle romanesque des Rougon-Macquart de Zola. La deuxième partie propose une approche sémasiologique dans laquelle chacune de ses cent trente-neuf occurrences est classée selon un sens dominant, dans les vingt romans. On offre ainsi une représentation de la répartition des sens de pouvoir à partir d’une étude des contextes étroits de ce mot. En contexte, on observe qu’il est parfois difficile de cerner les significations du substantif pouvoir qui présente des ambiguïtés, des glissements d’une signification à l’autre, par rapport à l’étude en langue. On peut dire que cette étude apporte un autre éclairage sur le mot pouvoir en inscrivant sa polysémie dans un continuum de sens. La troisième partie s’intéresse d’un point de vue onomasiologique, à partir d’une étude de contextes larges, aux trois champs sémantiques de pouvoir. Son champ générique est composé des synonymes autorité, puissance, toute-puissance, ascendant, domination, empire, force, trône. Son champ associatif, analysé à partir de ses différentes significations, peut se récapituler au moyen de sept mots clefs représentatifs : le régime politique, les appétits, la bande, la force, l’impuissance, la chute, la disgrâce. Son champ actanciel met en lumière la prépondérance des actants appartenant à la famille Rougon-Macquart par rapport aux autres personnages en ce qui concerne le pouvoir.Cette recherche, en alliant langue et discours, a l’intérêt de montrer que le classement en double réseau de pouvoir au sens de « capacité » et de pouvoir au sens d’ « autorité » n’apparaît pas dans Zola. Celui-ci choisit en effet de privilégier massivement l’utilisation des significations de pouvoir ayant trait à l’autorité ce qui montre son orientation par rapport à ses personnages, qu’il fait détenteurs d’une autorité sans qu’ils en aient nécessairement la capacité. / Power is a key element in the work of Zola, who was the first author to make political power the subject of a novel in Son Excellence Eugène Rougon. This thesis will therefore study the noun pouvoir (power), an abstract word whose polysemy is extensive.The first part is a lexicological and lexicographic study of the noun pouvoir in French considered as a language system (langue). The lexicological study uses basic notions of lexical semantics to present the polysemy, synonyms, context and connotations of pouvoir. The lexicographic study offers a diachronic analysis of this verbal noun from its first attested use in 842, reviewing its different meanings in old, pre-classical, classical, modern and contemporary French.The second part goes on to study pouvoir in a discourse setting in Zola’s Rougon-Macquart cycle. Using a semasiological approach, the 139 occurrences of the word across the twenty novels are classified according to a dominant meaning. This makes it possible to show the range of meanings of the word based on an analysis of the precise contexts in which it is used. In context, it becomes apparent that it is sometimes difficult to define the word’s meaning precisely, since ambiguities or slippages are observed with respect to the meanings established in the study of the overall language system. This part of the thesis thus sheds a different light on the word, by situating its polysemy in a continuum of meanings.The third part uses an onomasiological approach, analysing the broader contexts of the use of the word to establish three semantic fields of pouvoir. Its generic field is composed of the synonyms autorité (authority), puissance (power, capacity), toute-puissance (omnipotence), ascendant (ascendancy, influence), domination (domination), empire (empire), force (force), trône (throne). Its associative field, analysed through the different meanings of the word, can be summarised in seven representative key words : régime politique (political regime), appétits (appetites), bande (gang), force (force), impuissance (powerlessness), chute (fall), and disgrâce (disgrace). Finally an analysis of the actantial field of the word reveals that members of the Rougon-Macquart family are over-represented compared to other characters in actant positions related to power.Adopting an approach which spans the divide between language as system (langue) and discourse, this study shows that the double semantic reach of pouvoir as ‘capability’ (capacité) and ‘authority’ (autorité) is not present in Zola. Zola chooses to give massive priority to meanings of pouvoir which relate to authority. This serves to reveal the author’s attitude towards his characters, who possess authority without necessarily having the corresponding capability.

Vespidae possui aproximadamente 5000 espécies, sendo 3500 dessas são eumeníneos. Zethus é o maior gênero de Eumeninae, com mais de 250 espécies no mundo. Atualmente, encontra-se dividido em quatro subgêneros: Z. (Zethus), Z. (Zethusculus), Z. (Zethoides) e Z. (Madecazethus). Z. (Zethoides), com 42 espécies, se destaca por construir ninhos expostos e apresentar comportamento subsocial. Essas espécies encontram-se divididas em oito grupos, cada qual uma unidade filogenética natural que, porém, foram criados sem qualquer análise filogenética. Exemplares de 18 espécies de Z. (Zethoides), correspondentes aos grupos foram examinadas junto com terminais de outras linhagens de Zethus, Zethini e Eumeninae para elaboração de uma análise cladística afim de averiguar as divisões elaboradas. Todos os grupos de espécies foram recuperados como monofiléticos, exceto Z. bilgumis, que é parafilético em relação ao grupo Z. clypearis. Z. (Zethoides), apesar de monofilético, junto com Z. (Madecazethus), situa-se dentro de Zethus s. s. Z. (Zethusculus) também não foi recuperado como monofilético. Zethus é parafilético em relação aCtenochilus. Assim, o grupo Z. clypearisnão foi recuperado e seus integrantes pertencem agora ao grupo Z. biglumis, e as seguinte sinonímias serão propostas: Ctenochilus (=Zethus); Z. (Madecazethus) (=Z. (Zethus)); Z. (Zethoides) (=Z. (Zethus)). / Vespidae has approximately 5000 species, of which 3500 are eumenines. Zethus is the largest genus in Eumeninae, with over 250 species. Currently, it is divided in four subgenera: Z. (Zethus), Z. (Zethusculus), Z. (Zethoides) and Z. (Madecazethus). Z. (Zethoides), with 42 species, stands out for building exposed nests and presenting subsocial behavior. These species are further divided in eight groups, each considered a phylogenetic unit that were created without any phylogenetic analysis. Eighteen species of Z. (Zethoides) corresponding to different groups were examined, altogether with terminals fromdistict lineages of Zethus, Zethini and Eumenine, in order to elaborate a cladistics analysis to verify the proposed divisions. All species groups were monophyletic except for the Z. biglumis group, that is paraphyletic in relation to the Z. clypearis group. Z. (Zethoides), although monophyletic as Z. (Madecazethus), is placed within Zethus s. s. Z. (Zethusculus) was also retrieved paraphyletic. Thus, the Z. clypearis group is dismantled, and its integrates are incorporated in the Z. biglumis group. Also, the following synonymies will be proposed: Ctenochilus (=Zethus); Z. (Madecazethus) (=Z. (Zethus)); Z. (Zethoides) (=Z. (Zethus)).