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La siguiente investigación tiene como propósito describir las diversas formas de ejercicio de la representación por los pueblos indígenas dentro de la micropolítica urbana y multiétnica de la ciudad de San Lorenzo (capital provincial de Datem del Marañón, Loreto) y su relación con la creación de nuevas formas de entender el liderazgo indígena. Mediante una metodología cualitativa y etnográfica, a lo largo del siguiente documento planteamos describir el desarrollo de la historia política de esta localidad con un énfasis en el rol y protagonismo que los representantes por los pueblos indígenas han tenido en la misma. Asimismo, buscamos explorar los espacios de encuentro entre la multiplicidad de actores dentro del contexto urbano y las trayectorias políticas personales de los mismos. En este sentido, la investigación se enmarca dentro de los parámetros de la antropología política amazónica, y de forma más específica, las diversas formas de participación y articulación política entre los pueblos indígenas amazónicos y el Estado peruano.

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Beginning in the 16th century, the Isthmus of Panama was identified as a region of strategic importance. Although mountainous and prone to adverse weather, it provided the most direct route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. During this period the Isthmus served as the primary route for the shipments of silver and gold extracted from the mines of Peru. The bullion was transported via coastal armadas from Peru to Panamá la Vieja, where it was loaded onto pack mules and hauled across the Isthmus to Nombre de Dios until 1597, and after that to Portobelo. Once the bullion arrived at the Caribbean port cities it was transferred to the ships of the Armada de la Guardia de la Carrera de Indias and shipped across the Atlantic to the royal coffers of Spain. Because of the Isthmus’s role in the transportation of valuable commodities, it quickly became a region prone to attacks by pirates and privateers looking to profit from the plunder of Spanish assets. Thus the Spanish crown began a campaign to defend the Isthmus early on and repeatedly adapted its defensive strategy in order to meet the ever-changing tactics of the pirates and privateers. This thesis investigates the history of the Isthmus of Panama and the ways in which Spain defended this strategically significant locale during the 16th century. It incorporates an historical analysis of the tactics planned, ordered, and executed by the crown; an overview of the most relevant structural remains of the fortifications built during this period; and a synopsis of previous archaeological investigations, as well as the prospects of future archaeological research. The thesis begins with a brief history of the three main cities located on the Isthmus as well as a general description of the geography and climate in order to better explain the challenges faced by the inhabitants, soldiers, and attackers in this region. It then discusses the strategic importance of the Isthmus as it was perceived in the 16th century. Since defense would not have been necessary had it not been for the presence of pirates and privateers, the history of attacks on the Isthmus is discussed, and a general overview of piracy in the Spanish Main during the period under analysis is presented. Lastly, the archaeological work previously undertaken in the region is examined and summarized, and recommendations for further research are provided in an effort to provide a basis for future study of the ships and infrastructure used during this era for the defense of the Isthmus of Panama.

This article explores the beginnings of Mesoamerican civilization (meaning the origins of institutionalized, hereditary inequality, rank societies, and chiefdoms) during the Early Formative period (1900-100 BC). Before one can identify the processes of socio-political evolution it is first necessary to identify concrete examples of societies, and their attributes, which underwent this transformation. I outline data for six Mesoamerican cases of the shift from egalitarian societies to chiefdoms. Four of them are from the Tropical lowlands (Paso de la Amada, San Lorenzo, Puerto Escondido, and Cahal Pech), and two are from the Mexican Highlands (Tlapacoya and San José Mogote). / Este artículo trata acerca de los inicios de la civilización en Mesoamérica, es decir, los orígenes de la complejidad social, las desigualdades hereditarias institucionalizadas, las sociedades diferenciadas por rangos y las jefaturas durante el Periodo Formativo Temprano (c. 1900-100 a.C.). Antes de que se puedan discernir los procesos de evolución sociopolítica, primero es necesario identificar ejemplos concretos de sociedades, y sus atributos correspondientes, que experimentaron esa transformación. Aquí se resaltan los datos de seis casos del cambio de sociedades igualitarias a jefaturas de Mesoamérica: cuatro de tierras bajas tropicales (Paso de la Amada, San Lorenzo, Puerto Escondido y Cahal Pech) y dos de la sierra de México (Tlapacoya y San José Mogote).

In Italy the first half of the Cinquecento was marked by both flourishing artistic innovation and deep-seated religious uncertainty, the latter revealing itself most clearly in a widespread impetus towards reform. The relationship between these two cultural spheres--long a fraught problem in art historical scholarship--is made visually manifest in the religious works produced by the Florentine painter Jacopo da Pontormo. By re-examining Pontormo's three monumental religious commissions--the Certosa del Galluzzo (1522-27), the Capponi Chapel (1525-28), and the choir of San Lorenzo (1545-1557)--this dissertation maps the complex dialogue between artistic and devotional practice that characterized this era. Further, in highlighting the active role of the painter in this dynamic I propose a not only a new understanding of Pontormo, but also enrich our current notions of artistic agency in the Renaissance period. The foundation of these arguments derives from a re-evaluation of the specific historical context on the one hand, and the implementation of a broader framework of visual culture on the other. Taking its cue from Giorgio Vasari's 1568 edition of The Lives of the Artists, modern scholarship has tended to view much of the art from the early sixteenth century through a post-Tridentine lens; paintings are labeled controversial or heretical, when in fact such notions would not have been relevant in these earlier decades. Published five years after the conclusion of the Council of Trent, Vasari's Lives is predominantly characterized by the author's own attempts to codify artistic pedagogy and style in the service of the Medici Duchy, whose newly consolidated ties with the papacy were of primary importance. A further difficulty presented by following Vasari's example is the relatively narrow view of the artistic environment that his account affords. Aimed as it was towards the social elevation of the individual Renaissance artist, Vasari's narrative undervalues the importance of other genres and media--such as prints, Mystery plays, terracotta sculptures, and sacri monti--to the work of well-established painters like Pontormo. Each chapter examines a single, monumental project, delineating the artist's responsiveness to, and engagement with, the unique devotional and artistic challenges inherent to the individual commission. Chapter One resituates Pontormo's use of the maniera tedesca within the broader contexts of northern devotional practices and the parallels they form with affective strategies employed by other genres including sacre rappresentazioni and sacri monti. Chapter Two focuses on the painter's decision to portray himself the guise of Nicodemus, and the ways in which this identification evoked an entire web of historical associations--linked to hagiographic tradition and local legend--that would have been accessible to contemporary viewers. Finally, in Chapter Three I investigate Pontormo's pictorial approach, which combined an overarching diagrammatic simplicity with a complex, allusive figural language, as a means of communicating to the different levels of Florentine society that would have been his audience in this important parish church.

[ES] La Investigación llevada a cabo, la desarrollamos sobre la Iglesia Parroquial de San Lorenzo de Alberic, partiendo de unos restos encontrados en una reforma de los años ochenta del siglo pasado. Hemos utilizado la técnica del levantamiento mediante escáner láser en algunos de los edificios, y en otros el levantamiento manual, mediante medición directa para posteriormente proceder a su estudio. Para poder llevar a cabo la investigación la hemos encuadrado en la época histórica en que se llevó a cabo la construcción del templo cristiano en Alberic, sobre la mezquita existente con anterioridad, añadiendo diferentes hipótesis que refuerzan nuestra propuesta. La época histórica, a la que dedicamos también nuestra investigación, será la comprendida entre el año 1489, fecha en que el Cardenal Pedro González de Mendoza adquiere la baronía de Alberic, junto con la población de Ayora en el Reino de Valencia, y cerraremos el período histórico estudiado en el año 1554, fecha en la que muere Mencía de Mendoza, nieta del Cardenal, y que debido a su falta de descendencia, sus posesiones pasarán a su hermana María de Mendoza, casada con el Duque del Infantado, y a partir de éste momento la baronía de Alberic y Ayora, así como todas las posesiones que poseía el Marqués de Zenete, pasarán a formar parte de esta casa nobiliaria. Como podremos ver a lo largo de la investigación, lo que en principio hemos tratado como un edificio local, veremos que debido a las diferentes personalidades, adquiere relevancia internacional, tanto el Cardenal como su hijo primogénito Rodrigo de Mendoza, y finalmente su nieta, mantendrán relacio-nes a nivel internacional, con diferentes Reyes, Papas y también se vincularán familiarmente con nobles que vendrán junto al Emperador Carlos desde Flandes. En concreto el Conde Enrique III de Nassau, que casará con Mencía, y que durante nuestra investigación hemos podido comprobar que fue el promotor de los templos religiosos de la baronía de Alberic, que comprende en ésa época los núcleos de población de Alcocer, Alàsquer, Gavarda, Benifaraig, y algu-nos más con menor población. Además veremos que dada la importancia de esta familia, serán unos mecenas en las artes, abarcando desde la pintura hasta la arquitectura, y siendo los introductores del Renacimiento en los diferentes reinos de la Peninsula Ibérica, trasladando su influencia hasta los Países Bajos. Junto con el apartado histórico, estudiamos los diferentes templos parroquiales que bajo nuestro criterio pueden estar relacionados, influidos, o levantados en época similar o me-diante los mismos maestros, de manera que mediante la comparación, podamos arrojar luz, sobre ese primer edificio religioso cristiano, levantado sobre la mezquita existente en la población de Alberic, durante el siglo XVI. / [CA] La Investigació portada a terme, la desenvolupem sobre l'Església Parroquial de Sant Llorenç d'Alberic, partint d'unes restes trobades en una reforma dels anys 80 del segle passat. Hem utilitzat la tècnica de l'aixecament, mitjançant escàner làser en alguns dels edificis, i en uns altres l'aixecament manual, mitjançant mesurament directe per a posteriorment procedir al seu estudi. Per a poder dur a terme la investigació l'hem enquadrada en l'època històrica en què es va dur a terme la construcció del temple cristià a Alberic, sobre la mesquita existent amb ante-rioritat, afegint diferents hipòtesis que reforcen la nostra proposta. L'època històrica, a la qual dediquem també la nostra investigació, serà la compresa entre l'any 1489, data en què el Cardenal Pedro González de Mendoza adquireix la baronia d'Al-beric, juntament amb la població d'Aiora en el Regne de València, i tancarem el període històric estudiat l'any 1554, data en la qual mor Mencía de Mendoza, néta del Cardenal, i que a causa de la seua falta de descendència, les seues possessions passaran a la seua germana María de Mendoza, ca-sada amb el Duc del Infantado, i a partir d'aquest moment la baronia d'Alberic i Aiora, així com totes les possessions que posseïa el Marquès de Zenete, passaran a formar part d'a-questa casa nobiliària. Com podrem veure al llarg de la investigació, lo que en principi hem tractat com un edifici local, veurem que a causa de les diferents personalitats, adquireix rellevància internacional, tant el Cardenal com el seu fill primogènit Rodrigo de Mendoza, i finalment la seua néta, mantindran relacions a nivell in-ternacional, amb diferents reis, papes i també es vincularan familiarment amb nobles que vindran al costat de l'Emperador Carles des de Flandes. En concret el Comte Enric III de Nassau, que casarà amb Mencía, i que durant la nostra investigació hem pogut compro-var que va ser el promotor dels temples religiosos de la baro-nia d'Alberic, que comprèn en aquesta època els nuclis de població de Alcosser, Alàsquer, Gavarda, Benifaraig, i alguns més amb menor població. A més veurem que donada la importància d'aquesta família, seran uns mecenes en les arts, abastant des de la pintura fins a l'arquitectura, i sent els introductors del Renaixement en els diferents regnes de la Peninsula Ibèrica, traslladant la seua influència fins als Països Baixos. Juntament amb l'apartat històric, estudiem els diferents tem-ples parroquials que sota el nostre criteri poden estar relacio-nats, influïts, o alçats en època similar o mitjançant els ma-teixos mestres, de manera que mitjançant la comparació, puguem llançar llum, sobre aqueix primer edifici religiós cristià, construït sobre la mesquita existent en la població d'Alberic, durant el Segle XVI. / [EN] The research carried out, we developed from the Parish Church of San Lorenzo de Alberic, starting from a few remains found in a reform of the 80s the last century. We have used the lifting technique by means of laser scanner in some of the buildings, and in others the manual survey, by means of direct measurement to later proceed to its study. In order to carry out the research we have framed it in the historical epoch in which the construction of the Christian temple was carried out in Alberic, on the existing mosque previ-ously, adding different hypotheses that reinforce our proposal. The historical epoch, to which we also dedicate our research, will be that between the year 1489, the date on which Cardinal Pedro González de Mendoza acquired the barony of Alberic, together with the town of Ayora in the Kingdom of Valencia, and we will close the historical period studied in the year 1554, date in which Mencía de Mendoza dies, granddaughter of the Cardinal, and that due to his lack of offspring, his possessions will pass to his sister María de Mendoza, married to the Duque del Infantado, From this moment the barony of Alberic and Ayora, as well as all the possessions that the Mar-quis of Zenete possessed, will become part of this noble house. As we can see throughout the investigation, what we have originally treated as a local building, we will see that due to the different personalities, the Cardinal and his first-born son Rodrigo de Mendoza acquire international relevance, and finally his granddaughter , they will maintain relations at the interna-tional level, with different Kings, and will also be linked famil-iarly with nobles who will come with Emperor Carlos de Flan-des. In particular Count Henry III of Nassau, who will marry Mencía, and during our research we have seen that he was the promoter of the religious temples of the barony of Alberic, which comprises at that time the population centers of Alcocer, Alàsquer, Gavarda, Benifaraig, and some more with smaller popula-tion. In addition we will see that given the importance of this family, they will be patrons in the arts, ranging from painting to architecture, and being the initiators of the Renaissance in the different kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula, transferring their in-fluence to the Netherlands. Along with the historical section, we study the different parochial temples that under our criterion may be related, influenced, or raised in a similar time or by the same teachers, so that by comparison, we can shed light on that first Christian religious edifice, raised on the existing mosque in the town of Alberic, during the sixteenth century. / Torres Caballero, A. (2021). Los primeros Templos Renacentistas en la Ribera Alta del Júcar, S. XVI. El primitivo templo parroquial de San Lorenzo de Alberic [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/168449