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Problematic weight regulation as found in obesity and Anorexia Nervosa (AN) are chronic conditions which require long-term management. In order to develop long-term strategies to manage these conditions, a clearer understanding of the factors that can contribute to the development and also recovery from these conditions are a necessity. Although obesity and AN are at the opposite end of the bodyweight spectrum, some shared psychological processes may drive these states. One factor that has been suggested to contribute to problematic weight regulation is psychosocial stress whilst positive affect systems and affect regulation processes are important for regulating stress-related experiences. Gilbert (2005) describes an affect regulation system which consists of two positive affect systems known as social rank and attachment. Whilst the latter affect system refers to the attachment bond that develops between an infant and its caregiver (which extends to adult relationships), the former is used to form relationships that allow us to compete for limited resources and maintain our status in the social environment. Affect regulation processes in the current research are self-criticism and self-reassurance. Whilst self-critical thoughts and feelings can be triggered by perceptions of being low rank, the idea that people can be self-reassuring or being able to self-reassure at times of difficulty is nested in the positive infant-caregiver attachment bond and a consequence of internalizing parental soothing (Gilbert, 2006). Hence, as stress is suggested to be an important factor in problematic weight regulation and affect systems and processes are central to the regulation of emotional responses to stress-related experiences, the current series of studies examined these factors in relation to problematic weight regulation. The current research consisted of four studies designed to examine the role of stress and affect regulation in relation to weight change, weight regain following weight loss and recovery versus symptom maintenance in AN in women. A longitudinal study (Study One) was conducted to examine the change trajectories of stress, eating pathology and bodyweight, how these changes influence each other and the role of affect regulation systems and processes on these changes in a community based sample (N = 1157). Study Two examined the role of stress and affect regulation as predictors of weight regain in those who have lost weight (N = 42) and Study Three used a measure of life events and difficulties to investigate the role of stressful life changes and affect systems on recovery and relapse following AN (N = 30). Finally, in Study four, an expressive writing task which has been demonstrated to have a positive impact on stress-related health outcomes was used to explore the role of stress, affect systems and processes on problematic weight regulation and eating at times of stress (N = 57). The findings of the research studies demonstrated that there is a concurrent link between stress and the regulation of bodyweight and eating in a community-based sample of women. However, the proposed relationship between stress, bodyweight and eating behaviours was not confirmed when examined longitudinally in a community-based sample, over a 7-month period in women who have lost weight or when examined retrospectively as contributing to symptom maintenance in women with AN. However, the main finding of the current series of studies suggested that affect systems and affect regulation processes do have important implications for regulating stress-related experiences, bodyweight and eating behaviours. Perceived low social status, greater insecurity of attachment, more self-critical and less self-reassuring thoughts and feelings were related to increases in stress levels, higher bodyweight and higher levels of dysfunctional eating patterns. In addition, whilst expressive writing did not reduce stress, influence bodyweight or improve affect regulation at times of difficulty, writing about positive experiences had a positive impact on reducing dietary restraint behaviours during a stressful period. In conclusion, these findings suggest that it may not be stress per se that contributes to unhealthy changes in bodyweight and eating behaviours but how we use our affect systems and processes to manage our emotions at times of difficulty. Consequently, these findings have important implications for practice as weight loss programmes, Eating Disorder prevention programmes and stress management interventions should address the issues of perceived low social status, self-criticism and attachment insecurities.

O presente trabalho pretende narrar a história da Ala Vermelha, organização que surgiu como dissidência do Partido Comunista do Brasil (PC do B) e se transformou em partido autônomo em 1966, momento em que se inseriu nas lutas sociais brasileiras, chegando, inclusive, a realizar ações armadas de expropriação de fundos e de propaganda revolucionária entre 1968 e 1971. A Ala Vermelha apresenta um aspecto singular, que viria a distingui-la dos demais grupos guerrilheiros que atuavam naquela época no Brasil. Na plenitude do processo de luta armada, esta organização iniciou um procedimento autocrítico com relação à própria luta armada, procedimento este que se iniciou em 1969 para culminar em 1974, quando avaliou seu equívoco ao optar pelas ações armadas de forma imediata / The purpose of this work is to tell the story of the Red Wing, an organization that appeared originally as a dissidence inside the Brazilian Communist Party (PC do B) and became an autonomous party in 1966. From 1968 to 1971, it became actively involved in the Brazilian social struggle and even carried out armed actions to expropriate funds and disseminate revolutionary propaganda. The Red Wing had an unique trait that would distinguish it from other guerrilla groups operating at that time: in the heat of the armed struggle, this organization set off a self-criticism procedure focused on the very fight it was engaged on. This procedure was started in 1969 and culminated in 1974, when the organization concluded that its option for immediate armed reaction had been a mistake

O presente trabalho pretende narrar a história da Ala Vermelha, organização que surgiu como dissidência do Partido Comunista do Brasil (PC do B) e se transformou em partido autônomo em 1966, momento em que se inseriu nas lutas sociais brasileiras, chegando, inclusive, a realizar ações armadas de expropriação de fundos e de propaganda revolucionária entre 1968 e 1971. A Ala Vermelha apresenta um aspecto singular, que viria a distingui-la dos demais grupos guerrilheiros que atuavam naquela época no Brasil. Na plenitude do processo de luta armada, esta organização iniciou um procedimento autocrítico com relação à própria luta armada, procedimento este que se iniciou em 1969 para culminar em 1974, quando avaliou seu equívoco ao optar pelas ações armadas de forma imediata / The purpose of this work is to tell the story of the Red Wing, an organization that appeared originally as a dissidence inside the Brazilian Communist Party (PC do B) and became an autonomous party in 1966. From 1968 to 1971, it became actively involved in the Brazilian social struggle and even carried out armed actions to expropriate funds and disseminate revolutionary propaganda. The Red Wing had an unique trait that would distinguish it from other guerrilla groups operating at that time: in the heat of the armed struggle, this organization set off a self-criticism procedure focused on the very fight it was engaged on. This procedure was started in 1969 and culminated in 1974, when the organization concluded that its option for immediate armed reaction had been a mistake

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The main purpose of this thesis was to investigate the fit between four achievement goals, personal goal attributes and self-regulation strategies, and the generalisation of goal-strategy patterns to (1) different life domains (academic and physical activity settings), (2) two cultures (individualistic/the UK and collectivistic/Romania) and (3) over time, in two contexts (academic and sport university settings) in the UK. Additionally, differences between high level English and Romanian athletes in self-construals (individualism versus collectivism), achievement goals and self-regulation processes was investigated in one study. Method. The participants in the four studies of this thesis were: English university students (N = 591; study 1), English university athletes and exercise participants (N = 294 and N = 288, respectively; study 2), English and Romanian elite/sub-elite athletes (N = 91, N = 109 respectively; study 3a), Romanian university students involved in sport at elite and sub-elite levels (N = 196; study 3b), and English university student-athletes (N= 295; study 4). Three main questionnaires were used: the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (AGQ; Elliot & McGregor, 2001) (studies 1, 3b, and 4) and the Achievement Goals Questionnaire for Sport (AGQ-S; Conroy, Elliot & Hofer, 2003) (studies 2, 3ab and 4) measured four achievement goals in academic and sport settings, respectively (mastery-approach, mastery-avoidance, performance-approach and performance-avoidance goals); the third questionnaire, the Goal Systems Assessment Battery (GSAB; Karoly & Ruehlman, 1995) (all studies) required participants to state their most important personal goal, and measured two goal attributes (efficacy and value) and five self-regulation strategies used during goal pursuit (planning, self-monitoring, social comparison, self-reward and self-criticism). The fourth questionnaire, was the Self-Construal Scale-Revised (SCS-R; Hardin, 2006) which measured individualistic and collectivistic self-definitions in study 3a. Studies 1, 2 and 3a and 3b employed a correlational design, structural equation modelling analyses, and multivariate and univariate analyses of covariance (study 3a only), while study 4 employed a longitudinal design, latent growth curve analyses and structural equation modelling. Studies 1 and 2 Results. The goal-strategy models identified in education (study 1), sport and exercise (study 2) in the UK were very similar to each other, and consisted of both positive and negative paths (see figure A overleaf). Furthermore, in study 1, the total sample was divided into two samples according to the difficulty and specificity of personal goals: students in sample 1 (N = 325) set easy and vague goals, while students in sample 2 (N = 266) set difficult and specific goals. The model found in the total sample was tested again simultaneous in these two samples in order to ascertain the potential moderation effects of goal difficulty and specificity. As the model was invariant across groups it was concluded that personal goal difficulty/specificity was not a moderator of achievement goal relations with self-regulation processes. Finally, in study 2 Map relations with planning/self-monitoring was fully and partially mediated by goal efficacy and value in the sport and exercise domains, respectively. Study 3a and 3b Results. In study 3a, Romanian athletes had higher collectivistic self-construals than English athletes, while the two groups were similar in individualism. After controlling for collectivism, Romanian athletes, regardless of sport type (individual or team sport) had higher scores than English athletes on Pap and Pav goals, social comparison and self-motivation strategies (self-reward and self-criticism); and Romanian team sport athletes had higher scores on Map and planning/self-monitoring than their English counterparts. In study 3b the goal-strategy models identified in moderately competitive academic and physical activity settings in an individualistic West European culture (UK) were tested in highly competitive academic and elite sport settings in a collectivistic East European culture (Romania). The academic and sport domain models identified in Romania were similar to each other, and to those found in the UK. The following differences in model paths were noted in Romania: in the academic domain, four paths were not significant (Map and Mav to efficacy, efficacy to self-reward, and social comparison to self-criticism); and a new negative path was identified, from Map to social comparison; in the sport domain, five paths were not significant (Mav to efficacy, Pap to efficacy and social comparison, efficacy to reward and social comparison to self-criticism) and three new paths emerged, two positive paths, Pav to social comparison, and efficacy to planning/self-monitoring, and one negative path from efficacy to criticism. The positive path from Pav to social comparison (found in highly competitive sport settings) represents the most notable difference between the UK and Romanian models. Study 4 Results. The goal-strategy models identified in academic and sport contexts in studies 1 and 2 (described earlier) emerged again in these settings in study 4 (minus the path from efficacy to reward in both settings, and efficacy to criticism in academia) at three measurement times (start, middle and end of academic year/competitive season). Therefore, the model was stable over time. Unconditional growth curve analyses showed that, during one year, achievement goals and self-regulation processes followed different patterns of change: Map and Pav goals declined, while Pap and Mav goals were stable in education, and all goals declined in sport settings; goal commitment (a composite measure of goal efficacy and value) declined and planning/self-monitoring remained stable (in both settings); social comparison and self-motivation (a composite measure of self-reward and self-criticism) increased in education, while in sport the former was stable and the latter declined . Finally, associative growth curve models showed that in both domains: 1) temporal changes in Map were positively related to changes in goal commitment and planning/monitoring, and changes in the latter were associated with changes in self-motivation; 2) changes in Pap, social comparison and self-motivation were positively related; and 3) Mav changes were not related to changes in SR processes. Conclusion. This thesis advocates a conceptualisation of achievement goals as a dynamic, cyclical interplay between situated reasons, standards and self-regulated action; 2) an exploration of goal standards dimensions beyond the mastery-performance focus with the reason-standard complex; and 3) an expanded achievement motivation and self-regulation model, including the why (achievement goals), the what (personal goals/goal setting), and the how (self-regulated action), where the focus of enquiry is sifted from the correlates to the mechanisms of achievement goal effects.

Compassion Focused Therapy är en integrativ transdiagnostisk behandlingsform som syftar till att öka self-compassion och minska skam och självkritik hos individer med psykisk ohälsa. Skam och självkritik har i hög grad identifierats hos personer med ätstörningar, som också ofta anses svårbehandlade. Denna studie syftade till att undersöka huruvida CFT kan vara ett behandlingsalternativ vid ätstörningar. En single-subject design med upprepade mätningar användes (n=5). Studien visade på tvetydiga resultat men indikerar att en del individer kan vara hjälpta av denna behandling. Fortsatt forskning är således motiverad / Compassion Focused Therapy (CFT) is an integrative transdiagnostic treatment aiming at increasing self-compassion, and reducing levels of shame and self-criticism in individuals with psychiatric illness. High levels of shame and self-criticism have been identified in people suffering from eating disorders, disorders who are usually considered difficult to treat. The aim of the present study was to investigate if CFT could be considered a treatment option for eating disorders. A single-subject design with repeated measures was used (n=5). The results were ambiguous, though indicating that CFT could be helpful for some individuals with eating disorders. Further research is warranted.

Current research on factors predicting self-harm focus on disparate factors and may not be able to comprehensively explain the mechanisms causing self-harm. The aim of the current study was to examine factors that may be related yet independently predict self-harm. Factors discussed include rumination, self-criticism, and working memory. A binary logistic regression found that the only factor that predicted the presence of self-harming behavior was a high level of self-criticism. Further, a Classification and Regression Tree found that the single strongest predictor of self-harming behavior was a belief that love needs to be continually earned from others. Our findings have implications for improving the efficacy of interventions aimed at preventing self-harm, which traditionally have been ineffective. Treatments incorporating ways to reduce self-criticism, such as a focus on improving self-compassion with Compassionate Mind Training, may address underlying mechanisms that can trigger self-harm behavior.

Introduction: Excessive self-criticism constitute a huge suffering for the individual. Clinical experiences and research indicate that the phenomenon is difficult to treat and one of the strongest obstacles against a healing process. The aim of this study is to develop grounded hypothesis of what can be useful ways of relate to and/or intervene regarding excessive self-criticism. Starting point is the experience and knowledge of licenced psychodynamic psychotherapists.  Questions:What is the experience of working with patients who suffers from excessive self-criticism? In which ways and what is it that causes this condition difficult to treat?Which clinical strategies are perceived to work, respectively not work?  Method:Six semi-structured interviews with experienced psychotherapists which were coded with thematic inductive analysis.  Results: Six themes: 1) Observe reactions suggestive of self-criticism. 2) Separate the patient from self-criticism. 3) Analyse why. 4) Be a counterforce. 5) Synthonicity and mistrust. 6) Build a counterforce within the patient.  Discussion:Based on theory and research, the discussion leads to hypothesis of useful therapeutic approaches: 1) Long experience of the phenomenon. 2) Empathic, warm relational and active stand, a reinforcing counterforce. 3) Specific interventions with the aim to activate the patient’s own empathy, compassion and trust – and to others. / Inledning:Överdriven självkritik innebär ett stort lidande för individen. Kliniska erfarenheter och forskning tyder på att fenomenet är svårbearbetat och ett av de starkaste hindren i vägen för en läkningsprocess. Syftet med studien är att utveckla grundade hypoteser om vad som kan vara användbara sätt att förhålla sig och/eller intervenera vid överdriven självkritik. Studien har som utgångspunkt psykodynamiska legitimerade psykoterapeuters erfarenheter och kunskaper.  Frågeställningar:Vad är psykoterapeutens erfarenheter av att arbeta med patienter som lider av överdriven självkritik? På vilka sätt och vad är det som orsakar att tillståndet är svårbehandlat? Vilka kliniska strategier upplevs fungera respektive inte fungera i behandlingen?  Metod:Sex semistrukturerade intervjuer, genomförda med erfarna psykoterapeuter, vilka undersöktes med tematisk induktiv analys. Resultat:Sex teman: 1) Observera reaktioner som tyder på självkritik. 2) Skilja ut patienten från självkritiken. 3) Undersöka varför. 4) Vara en motkraft. 5) Syntonicitet och misstro. 6) Bygga upp en motkraft hos patienten. Diskussion:Utifrån teori och forskningsnivån lyfts resultatdiskussionen till grundade hypoteser om användbara förhållningssätt: 1) Lång erfarenhet av fenomenet. 2) Ett empatiskt, varmt relationellt och aktivt terapeutiskt förhållningssätt och att fungera som en förstärkande motkraft. 3) Specifika interventioner i syfte att aktivera patientens egna empati, medkänsla och tillit – och gentemot andra.