Les espèces réactives de l’oxygène (ERO) contrôlent plusieurs aspects de la carcinogenèse, étant donné leur capacité àpromouvoir la prolifération mais aussi à induire la sénescence et l’apoptose. Dans les stades avancés de cancer, les EROpeuvent également participer au développement de l’atrophie musculaire, engendrant une détérioration de la qualité de viedes patients. L’activité physique (AP), connue pour augmenter les défenses antioxydants de l’organisme et lasupplémentation en antioxydants sont considérées comme deux stratégies susceptibles de moduler la croissance tumorale, d’améliorer la performance physique et de réduire les effets secondaires liés à la maladie et aux traitements anticancéreux. Néanmoins, plusieurs questions restent aujourd’hui sans réponse. En effet, bien que l’AP puisse réduire la progression du cancer du sein, du colon et de la prostate, son impact sur les cancers se développant au sein du muscle (ex : le liposarcome), donc soumis aux contractions musculaires répétées, reste méconnu. En utilisant des approches in vivo et in vitro, nous avons démontré que maintenir une AP régulière accélère la croissance du liposarcome intramusculaire, probablement, via la réduction des taux circulants d’insuline et l’inhibition de la voie « P38 MAPK-P21 ». Pour les patients ne pouvant pas pratiquer d’AP, la consommation d’antioxydants pourrait être un moyen de réduire les ERO tumorales et musculaires et ainsi être prometteuse. Toutefois, les études actuelles restent très controversées. Nos travaux ont montré dans un modèle murin de cachexie cancéreuse que des doses nutritionnelles d’un produit antioxydant commercialisé en France, étaient suffisantes pour accélérer la croissance de la tumeur colique, favoriser la perte de masse corporelle totale et musculaire et engendrer la mort prématurée des souris. L’ensemble de nos résultats suggère que la pratique d’AP et la consommation en antioxydants peuvent induire des effets différents selon le type de tumeur et leur implantation, nécessitant une prise en charge individualisée des patients. En effet, (1) les patients atteints d’un LS intramusculaire devraient éviter de pratiquer une AP durant la période préopératoire mais ces résultats doivent être confirmés par une étude clinique, (2) les patients avec un stade avancé de cancer devraient être vigilants quant à l’utilisation de suppléments antioxydants ; une telle pratique pouvant avoir des répercussions dangereuses sur leur santé. / Reactive oxygen species (ROS) control several aspects of carcinogenesis as they can either promote tumor growth andprogression or senescence and apoptosis. In advanced stages of cancer, ROS can also drive the development of other cancerrelated complications like, muscle wasting. Physical activity (PA) and antioxidant supplementation have been proposed as two adjuvant strategies to better control tumor growth, ameliorate performance and alleviate secondary symptoms related to cancer itself or to the heavy anticancer therapies. However, several issues remain to be elucidated. First of all, although PA could reduce colon, breast and prostate cancer growth and progression, its impact remains unknown on orthotopic intramuscular tumors like liposarcoma, which directly affect the musculoskeletal apparatus and reduce physical function. Secondly, given the limitedness of PA application in some advanced stages of cancer, patients may increase their dependency on nutritional and antioxidant complements as an alternative strategy, but such practice has spark a lot of polemic and inconsistent results. In this thesis, we have addressed the effectiveness of PA and antioxidants in two distinct animal models of cancer. Using in vivo and in vitro approaches, we found that voluntary PA accelerated the growth of intramuscular liposarcoma tumors and exacerbated skeletal muscle dysfunction, mainly, by decreasing circulating insulin levels and the subsequent activation of the tumor suppressor pathway “P38 MAPK-P21”. We also demonstrated that nutritional doses of commercial antioxidants enhanced colon tumor growth, total body/skeletal muscle weight loss and caused premature death of mice. Such mechanism was due to selective changes in oxidative damage profiles, which decreased in tumor but increased in skeletal muscle, in a way driving tumor growth and skeletal muscle wasting/dysfunction. Clinically, it seems that (1) patients with intramuscular liposarcoma may, at least, not increase their levels of PA or undergo hospital-supervised exercise program, during the preoperative period; until the confirmation of our findings with clinical data and (2) patients with advanced stages of cancer must be very careful against the use of antioxidants as it could lifethreatening. Accordingly, health agencies in France, Europe and USA prohibit the use of synthetic antioxidant supplements without dietary counseling by a cancer patient’s physician and/or nutritionist.

Cette thèse propose des techniques pour le traitement d'images IRM de diffusion. Les méthodes proposées concernent l'estimation et la régularisation, le groupement et la segmentation ainsi que le recalage. Le cadre variationnel proposé dans cette thèse pour l'estimation d'un champ de tenseurs de diffusion à partir d'observations bruitées exploite le fait que les données de diffusion représentent des populations de fibres et que chaque tenseur peut être reconstruit à partir d'une combinaison pondérée de tenseurs dans son voisinage. La méthode de segmentation traite aussi bien les voxels que les fibres. Elle est basée sur l'utilisation de noyaux défini-positifs sur des probabilités gaussiennes de diffusion afin de modéliser la similarité entre tenseurs et les interactions spatiales. Ceci permet de définir des métriques entre fibres qui combinent les informations de localisation spatiale et de tenseurs de diffusion. Plusieurs approches de groupement peuvent être appliquées par la suite pour segmenter des champs de tenseurs et des trajectoires de fibres. Un cadre de groupement supervisé est proposé pour étendre cette technique. L'algorithme de recalage utilise les noyaux sur probabilités pour recaler une image source et une image cible. La régularité de la déformation est évaluée en utilisant la distortion induite sur les distances entre probabilités spatialement voisines. La minimisation de la fonctionnelle de recalage est faite dans un cadre discret. La validation expérimentale est faite sur des images du muscle du mollet pour des sujets sains et pour des patients atteints de myopathies. Les résultats des techniques développées dans cette thèse sont encourageants. / In this thesis, we present several techniques for the processing of diffusion tensor images. They span a wide range of tasks such as estimation and regularization, clustering and segmentation, as well as registration. The variational framework proposed for recovering a tensor field from noisy diffusion weighted images exploits the fact that diffusion data represent populations of fibers and therefore each tensor can be reconstructed using a weighted combination of tensors lying in its neighborhood. The segmentation approach operates both at the voxel and the fiber tract levels. It is based on the use of Mercer kernels over Gaussian diffusion probabilities to model tensor similarity and spatial interactions, allowing the definition of fiber metrics that combine information from spatial localization and diffusion tensors. Several clustering techniques can be subsequently used to segment tensor fields and fiber tractographies. Moreover, we show how to develop supervised extensions of these algorithms. The registration algorithm uses probability kernels in order to match moving and target images. The deformation consistency is assessed using the distortion induced in the distances between neighboring probabilities. Discrete optimization is used to seek an optimum of the defined objective function. The experimental validation is done over a dataset of manually segmented diffusion images of the lower leg muscle for healthy and diseased subjects. The results of the techniques developed throughout this thesis are promising.

La régénération du muscle fait appel à des cellules souches spécialisées mais elle nécessite également une action coordonnée d'éléments et de cellules du stroma et des tissus de soutien. L'étude de la régénération musculaire ne peut se borner à la seule étude de l'activation, la prolifération et la différenciation des cellules souches musculaires. L'objectif de mon travail de thèse a été d'approcher les mécanismes qui participent à la régénération harmonieuse du muscle à côté des cellules satellites à savoir les différents éléments cellulaires des tissus de soutien et aussi le stroma au travers de l'étude de la chimiokine CXCL12 et de son ancrage à la matrice extra-cellulaire musculaire. Dans un premier temps, nous avons fait le constat que les modèles de lésions musculaires étaient nombreux et étaient utilisés de façon indistincte avec une méconnaissance de leurs spécificités propres. Ainsi, la première partie de ce travail de thèse a consisté en la comparaison des modèles les plus utilisés dans la littérature afin de connaître leurs cibles potentielles et de choisir le mieux adapté aux questions scientifiques posées. Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons utilisé un modèle d'animaux génétiquement invalidés pour l'ancrage de l'isoforme gamma de CXCL12 à la matrice pour étudier le muscle strié squelettique, son développement, les cellules souches et l'organisation de leur niche et enfin, sa réparation. Bien que dans tous les modèles la lésion du muscle évolue à terme vers une restitution ad integrum, les processus mis en oeuvre varient en fonction du type et de l'ampleur de l'atteinte. En outre, nous avons montré que les paramètres histologiques seuls ne sont pas entièrement suffisants pour affirmer que la régénération musculaire est achevée et qu'il faut savoir considérer chaque type cellulaire en détail ainsi que des paramètres fonctionnels qu'il conviendra de mesurer dans les suites de ce travail. Nous avons ensuite étudié l'influence de l'adhésion de la chimiokine CXCL12 aux glycosaminoglycanes dans sa capacité à réguler la réparation musculaire. Pour ce faire nous avons utilisé comme modèle d'étude la souris knock in CXCL12Gagtm/Gagtm, récemment développée au laboratoire et dans laquelle le gène CXCL12 a été muté dans la région du site contrôlant l'ancrage de la molécule CXCL12 aux HS. Chez cette souris, CXCL12 est présent mais incapable de se fixer aux HS de la matrice extracellulaire tout en gardant son activité via CXCR4. Dans ce cas précis CXCL12 est donc incapable de générer un gradient responsable de l'attraction, la rétention et la migration de cellules cibles.Même si cette mutation n'altère pas le bon développement de la souris et que le muscle à l'état basal est normal, nous avons montré un défaut de régénérescence musculaire chez ces souris mutées ayant subit l'agression musculaire la plus sévère avec la présence d'un tissus fibreux cicatriciel et une infiltration d'adipocytes. Nous avons montré que l'absence de gradient de CXCL12 aboutit à une dérégulation de l'angiogenèse dont certains stigmates sont visibles à l'état basal, mais dont la pleine anomalie ne se mesure qu'en conditions d'agression. Cette dérégulation pourrait s'expliquer par la présence de vaisseaux non stabilisés par des cellules murales (cellules musculaires lisses et péricytes). Le développement de ce modèle de fibrose ouvre la voie à différentes questions sur le déroulement de la fibrose en général, de la réparation musculaire, et des relations qu'entretient l'arbre vasculaire les cellules de soutien. / Muscle regeneration needs specialized stem cells but it also requires coordinated action of stromal cells and supporting tissue. The study of muscle regeneration can not be only limited to the study of the activation, proliferation and differentiation of muscle stem cells. The aim of this thesis was to approach the mechanisms involved in the harmonious regeneration of the muscle beside satellite cells to know the different cellular elements of the supporting tissues and also the stroma through the study of CXCL12 chemokine and its anchorage to the GAG of the muscle extracellular matrix.First, we made the observation that muscle damage models were numerous and were used indistinctly with ignorance of their own specificities. Thus, the first part of this thesis consisted of comparing different injury models commonly used in the literature to determine their potential targets and choose the most adapted to scientific questions asked. secondarily, we used an animal model genetically invalidated for anchoring of CXCL12 gamma isoform to the matrix to study the skeletal muscle development, stem cells and the organization of their niche and finally, the repair.We showed initially that the initial choice of the injury model is important during pathophysiological studies. Although all muscle injury models lead to an ad integrum restitution, regeneration processes vary considerably and the impact on different cell types also varies widely. In addition, we have shown that the only histological parameters, are not entirely sufficient to say that muscle regeneration is complete and each cell type should be considering in detail as well as functional parameters that should be measured in perspectives of this work.We used as a study model, mice knock in CXCL12Gagtm/Gagtm recently developed in the laboratory and in which CXCL12 gene has been mutated for the region coding the controlling anchoring of CXCL12 to HS. In this mouse, CXCL12 is present but unable to bind to the extracellular matrix HS while keeping its activity via CXCR4. In this case CXCL12 is unable to generate a gradient responsible for the attraction, retention and migration of target cells.Although this change does not affect the development of the mouse and the muscle at basal state is normal, we have shown a lack of muscle regeneration in these mice with fibrosis and fat infiltartion.The muscle stem cell compartment seems not to be altered in the mutant mice in the basal state and during the regeneration of the muscle. We have shown that the absence of CXCL12 gradient leads to deregulated angiogenesis through vascular hyperproliferation at the basal state. This deregulation seems to be responsible of an altered vascular regeneration after injury with the presence of non-stabilized mural cells (smooth muscle cells and pericytes). This lack of vascular regeneration appears to be responsible for a muscle regeneration failure.

CETTE thèse est consacrée à la conception d’un système d’aide au diagnostic dédiéau muscle squelettique humain. Au cours du premier volet de ce manuscrit nousproposons une nouvelle représentation basée sur les modèles parcimonieux dans le cadrede la segmentation d’Images de Résonances Magnétiques (IRM) T1 du muscle squelettiquedu mollet. Notre méthode Sparse Shape Model/ Modèle de Formes Parcimonieux(MFP), apprend un modèle statistique de formes et de textures locales annoté et réussità en tirer une représentation réduite afin de reconstruire le mécanisme musculaire sur unexemple test. Dans la seconde partie du manuscrit, nous présentons une approche baséesur des ondelettes de diffusion pour la segmentation du muscle squelettique. Contrairementaux méthodes de l’état de l’art, notre approche au cours de la phase d’apprentissagepermet à optimiser les coefficients des ondelettes, ainsi que leur nombres et leur positions.Le modèle prend en charge aussi bien les hiérarchies dans l’espace de recherche,que l’encodage des dépendances géométriques complexes et photométriques de la structured’intérêt. Notre modélisation offre ainsi l’avantage de traiter des topologies arbitraires.L’évaluation expérimentale a été effectué sur un ensemble de mollets acquisespar un scanner IRM, ainsi qu’un ensemble d’images tomodensitométriques du ventriculegauche. / THE thesis is dedicated to three dimensional shape analysis and the segmentation ofhuman skeletal muscles in the context of myopathies and their treatment. In particular,we study the local and global structural characteristics of muscles. The methodologicalfocus of the thesis is to devise methods for the segmentation of muscles, theconsistent localization of positions in the anatomy and the navigation within the muscledata across patients. Currently diagnosis and follow-up examinations during therapy ofmyopathies are typically performed by means of biopsy. This has several disadvantages:it is an invasive method, covers only a small muscle region, is mainly restricted to diagnosticpurpose and is not suitable for follow-up evaluation. We develop the followingmethods to make the use of non-invasive imaging modalities such as MRI for a virtualbiopsy possible: first, a novel approach to model shape variations that encodes sparsity,exploits geometric redundancy, and accounts for the different degrees of local variationand image support in data. It makes the modeling and localization of muscles possible,that exhibit sparsely distributed salient imaging features, and heterogeneous shapevariability. Second, we extend the shape representation of 3D structures using diffusionwavelets. The proposed method can represent shape variation and exploits continuousinter-dependencies of arbitrary topology in the shape data. We then explore several approachesfor the shape model search, and appearance representation based on boostingtechniques and canonical correlation analysis. Last we present a robust diffusion wavelettechnique that covers the integration of our two shape models approaches to finally getan enhanced sparse wavelet based method. We validate the approaches on two medicalimaging data sets that represent the properties tackled by the approaches: T1 weightedMRI data of full calf muscles and computed tomography data of the left heart ventricle.

REDD1 contribue au dialogue entre le métabolisme énergétique et la masse musculaire.REDD1 est une protéine ubiquitaire et conservée qui est exprimée en réponse à de nombreux stress et pathologies associés à une atrophie du muscle squelettique, un paramètre corrélé à la mortalité des patients. REDD1 est connue pour inhiber la voie Akt/mTORC1 qui contrôle la synthèse des protéines (composants majoritaires du muscle), mais également d'autres macromolécules tels les ribosomes, les nucléotides ou le glycogène. Nos travaux montrent, grâce à un modèle murin, que REDD1 est capable d'une part d'inhiber la synthèse protéique ce qui conduit à l'atrophie du muscle, et d'autre part de réduire le stockage du glycogène musculaire. Cependant, sa délétion est responsable d'une augmentation du métabolisme basal, d'une réduction de la capacité d'exercice et d'une aggravation de l'atrophie musculaire en situation d'hypoxie. Ces altérations du métabolisme ne sont pas liées à un dysfonctionnement mitochondrial, mais associées à une moindre inhibition de la signalisation d'Akt et/ou mTORC1, tous deux responsables de l'activation de processus anaboliques couteux en énergie. Pris ensembles, ces résultats suggèrent que REDD1 agit comme modérateur de la dépense en ATP dans des situations de stress énergétique. / REDD1 contributes to the crosstalk between energetic metabolism and skeletal muscle mass. REDD1 is a ubiquitous and conserved protein, which is expressed in response to numerous stresses and pathologies responsible of muscle atrophy, a parameter correlated with patient mortality. REDD1 is known to inhibit Akt/mTORC1 pathway which controls synthesis of proteins (the major component of muscle) and other macromolecules such as ribosome, nucleotide or glycogen. Our work shows on a mice model that REDD1 inhibits protein synthesis, leading to skeletal muscle atrophy, and reduces muscle glycogen storage. However, REDD1 deletion is responsible of an increase in basal metabolism, a reduction of exercise capacity and an exacerbation of hypoxia-induced skeletal muscle atrophy. These metabolic alterations are not associated with a mitochondrial dysfunction but rather with an hyper activation of the Akt/mTORC1 pathway which is responsible for the stimulation of energy demanding processes. Altogether, these results strongly suggest that REDD1 acts for moderating ATP demand in energetic stress conditions

Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) is an x-linked neuromuscular disease that is caused by an absence of dystrophin protein, rendering skeletal muscle more susceptible to contraction-induced damage. One therapeutic strategy focuses on increasing the expression of endogenous utrophin A, a dystrophin homologue. Interestingly, slow muscle is more resistant to the dystrophic pathology and has increased utrophin A expression (Webster 1998; Gramolini 2001b). These observations led researchers to explore the therapeutic potential of stimulating the slow, oxidative myogenic program (SOMP) in the mdx context. Beneficial adaptations were seen with pharmacological activation of PPARδ and AMPK. We treated mdx mice with resveratrol (~100mg/kg/day), a putative SIRT1 activator, for 6-7 weeks and evaluated the activity of phenotypic modifiers that are known to influence the SOMP. SIRT1 activity and protein levels increased significantly, as well as downstream PGC-1α activity. There was evidence of a fibre type conversion as the treated mice had a higher proportion of the slow myosin heavy chain isoforms in both the EDL and Soleus skeletal muscles. Utrophin A protein levels showed modest, but consistent increases with resveratrol treatment. Finally, histological analysis revealed improvements in central nucleation and fibre size variability. These findings were promising, but raised the question of whether modifying the treatment regimen may result in greater therapeutic benefits. Surprisingly, we discovered that an elevated dose of 500mg/kg/day was ineffective in its promotion of the SOMP. SIRT1 was not activated and there was no change in utrophin A levels with resveratrol treatment. Taken together, this study demonstrates that resveratrol has the ability to promote the SOMP through SIRT1 and PGC-1α activation. It also highlights the importance of selecting an appropriate dose of resveratrol to maximize its effectiveness.

Les cellules des muscles striés squelettiques sont constituées d'éléments contractiles enveloppés par un réseau membranaire. La formation et l'entretien du muscle strié squelettique impliquent la migration des précurseurs myogéniques, la fusion des myoblastes en myotubes et la mise en place des triades. Ces évènements reposent sur le remodelage des membranes et du cytosquelette d'actine des cellules musculaires. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai étudié le rôle de la protéine adaptatrice CKIP-1 (casein kinase 2 interacting protein-1) dans certaines étapes du développement du muscle strié squelettique. Après avoir identifié le complexe de nucléation de l’actine Arp (actin-related protein) 2/3 comme un nouvel interacteur de CKIP-1, nous avons montré que l’inhibition de l’expression de ckip-1 chez l’embryon de poisson zèbre altère la morphologie des myoblastes et empêche leur fusion du fait d’une désorganisation du cytosquelette d’actine. J’ai également montré que CKIP-1 n’est présente qu’au cours des étapes précoces de la myogenèse in vitro et in vivo chez la souris, puis elle est progressivement clivée. En outre, la modulation de l’expression de CKIP-1 provoque des défauts membranaires aussi bien in vitro qu’in vivo dans le muscle adulte de souris, suggérant que CKIP-1 est impliquée dans le remodelage des membranes. CKIP-1, par ses capacités à remodeler le cytosquelette d’actine et les membranes, pourrait intervenir dans plusieurs étapes de la vie du muscle : la migration, la fusion des myoblastes et la mise en place ou le maintien du réseau membranaire interne des cellules du muscle strié squelettique. / Skeletal muscle cells are composed of contractile elements wrapped in a membrane network. Formation and maintenance of skeletal muscle involve muscle precursor migration, fusion and triad formation. These events rely on actin cytoskeleton and membrane remodelling in muscle cells. The aim of my thesis work was to study the role of the scaffold protein CKIP-1 (casein kinase 2 interacting protein-1) at different steps of skeletal muscle development. We identified the actin nucleation complex Arp (actin-related protein) 2/3 as a CKIP-1 new interactor and showed that Ckip-1 depletion in zebrafish embryos alters fast twitch myoblast morphology and prevents their fusion due to actin cytoskeleton disorganization. I further showed that CKIP-1 is only present during early myogenesis in vitro and in vivo in mouse, and is then cleaved. Modulation of CKIP-1 expression induces membrane defects in vitro but also in vivo in adult mouse muscle, suggesting that CKIP-1 is involved in membrane remodelling. Through its abilities to remodel actin cytoskeleton and thus membranes, CKIP-1 could be implicated in various steps of muscle life: myoblast migration, fusion, and formation or maintenance of the intracellular membrane compartments of skeletal muscle cells.

Acreditava-se inicialmente que a produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) estava associada apenas aos danos oxidativos e efeitos deletérios às células. Atualmente, evidências sugerem que as EROs desempenham papel benéfico e estão associadas às adaptações estruturais e funcionais das células, por meio de regulação de vias de sinalizações celulares. Nas células musculares, sabe-se que sua função é dependente do estado redox das mesmas. De fato a produção exacerbada destas EROs é um fator limitante da contração muscular, no entanto, um ambiente celular reduzido também afeta negativamente a função muscular. Além disso, adaptações ao exercício físico parecem ser reguladas por vias de sinalizações sensíveis a oxidação por EROs. A NADPH oxidase é um importante complexo enzimático produtor de EROs no músculo esquelético (ME) e considerada como principal fonte de EROs no citosol durante a contração. Além disso, as proteínas envolvidas na contração muscular são sensíveis e reguladas dependente do estado redox celular, e, a NADPH oxidase esta localizada, aparentemente de forma estratégica, próxima a estas proteínas. Desta forma, tornou-se pertinente o estudo da inibição da NADPH oxidase, com apocinina in vivo, em adaptações ao treinamento físico intervalado intenso (TFII), uma vez que esta enzima tem sua atividade aumentada em estudos de contração muscular in vitro. Para investigar o efeito do TFII associado à administração de apocinina sobre as adaptações estruturais, funcionais e redox do músculo esquelético, foram utilizados ratos wistar (3 meses de idade) distribuídos aleatoriamente em 4 grupos: controle sedentário (CS), controle treinado (CT), apocinina sedentário (AS), e apocinina treinado (AT). O protocolo de TFII foi de corrida em esteira rolante durante 2 meses (1h, 5x/sem) com intensidade intervalada (3min a 60% VO2máx e 4min a 85% VO2máx) em inclinação de 20°. O tratamento com a apocinina (30 mg/kg/dia) foi por gavagem durante 2 meses. Foram avaliadas nos músculos sóleo e EDL, as medidas de capilarização, área de secção transversa (AST), distribuição de tipos de fibra, atividades de enzimas antioxidantes: superóxido dismutase (SOD) e catalase (CAT), o estado redox pela razão GSH:GSSG, e lesões oxidativas pelas concentrações de hidroperóxidos lipídicos e proteínas carboniladas. Os resultados demonstraram, que no músculo sóleo, o TFII não alterou a atividade da NADPH oxidase, mas aumentou a capilarização (82%), a atividade da SOD (47%) e a razão GSH:GSSG (52%), e diminuiu a atividade da CAT (-38%). No músculo EDL, o TFII aumentou as atividades das enzimas NADPH oxidase (141%), SOD (36%) e CAT (88%), bem como a capilarização (50%) e mudanças de tipos de fibras. Com isso observou-se que a apocinina não teve efeito sobre a função, estrutura e estado redox do ME de ratos sedentários. No entanto, a apocinina inibiu as adaptações induzidas pelo TFII em ambos os músculos (sóleo e EDL). O TFII aumentou a atividade da NADPH oxidase apenas no músculo EDL mostrando comportamentos diferentes das atividades desta enzima, em resposta a este tipo de treino, entre os músculos de características oxidativas e glicolíticas. Sendo assim, a NADPH oxidase parece participar das vias sinalizadoras para as adaptações induzidas pelo TFII apenas nos músculos glicolíticos. Diante desses resultados, conclui-se que músculos glicolíticos e oxidativos podem ter vias de sinalizações diferentes para as adaptações do ME ao exercício. Isto reforça e também explica a importância da intensidade e duração do exercício em respostas adaptativas, uma vez que estas variáveis influenciam o estado redox e também desencadeiam adaptações diferentes no ME. Futuramente, informações do estado redox muscular podem ser usadas para melhorar a especialização do treinamento físico de atletas / Initially it is believed, the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was associated just with oxidative damage and harmful effects on cells. Currently, evidence suggests that ROS play beneficial role and are associated with structural and functional adaptations of the cells by means of regulating cellular signaling pathways. In muscle cells, it is known that its function is dependent on the redox state. In fact, the exacerbated production of ROS is a limiting factor of muscle contraction, however, a reduced cellular environment also adversely affects the muscle function. In addition, adaptations to exercise seems to be regulated by signaling pathways sensitive to oxidation by ROS. The NADPH oxidase is an important enzymatic complex producer of ROS in skeletal muscle (SM) and considered as the main source of ROS in the cytosol during contraction. Besides, the proteins involved in muscle contraction are sensitive and controlled by the cellular redox state. Furthermore, NADPH oxidase is located, apparently in a strategic way, next to these proteins. Thus, it has become relevant to the study, in vivo, the inhibition of NADPH oxidase with apocynin on adaptations to high intense interval training (HIIT), since this enzyme activity has been increased in studies of muscle contraction in vitro. To investigate the effect of HIIT associated with the administration of apocynin on the structural and functional adaptations and the redox state of skeletal muscle, Wistar rats (3 months old) were randomly distributed into 4 groups: sedentary control, trained control, sedentary apocynin, and trained apocynin. The HIIT protocol consisted of treadmill running during two months (1h, 5x / week) with intensity intervals (3min 60% VO2max and 4 min at 85% VO2max) in a inclination of 20 degrees, and the apocynin treatment (30 mg / kg / day) was by gavage during 2 months. Were evaluated in soleus and EDL muscles, the capillarity, cross-sectional area (CSA), the distribution of fiber types, activities of antioxidant enzymes: superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT), the redox state by GSH: GSSG ratio, and oxidative damage by concentrations of hydroperoxides lipid and protein carbonyls levels. The results showed that in the soleus muscle, the HIIT did not increase the NADPH oxidase activity, but increased capillarity (82%), the activity of SOD (47%) and the ratio GSH: GSSG (52%), but decreased CAT activity (-38%). In EDL muscle, the HIFF increased the activity of the NADPH oxidase enzyme (141%), SOD (36%) and CAT (88%), and the capillarity (50%) and the change of fiber types. Thus it was observed that apocynin had no effect on the function, structure and redox state of SM of sedentary rats. However, the apocynin inhibited adaptations HIIT induced in both muscles (soleus and EDL). The HIIT increased the activity of NADPH oxidase only in the EDL muscle showing different behaviors of the activity of this enzyme in response to this type of training, between the oxidative and glycolytic muscles. Therefore, NADPH oxidase appears to participate in the signaling pathways for adjustments HIIT induced only in the glycolytic muscles. Given these results, it is concluded that glycolytic and oxidative muscles may have different pathways for the adjustments to the SM to exercise. This reinforces and also explains the importance of the intensity and duration of exercise in adaptive responses, since these variables influence the redox state and also trigger different adjustments in SM. In the future, muscle redox status information could even be used to improve the expertise of physical training of athletes

O câncer é considerado uma das principais causas de morte no mundo. Para o tratamento dessa doença, frequentemente são utilizadas estratégias farmacológicas baseadas na intervenção quimioterápica, no qual a doxorubicina (DOX) é largamente utilizada. Visto que, o músculo esquelético possui importante papel na captação de glicose, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar o efeito da DOX na intolerância à glicose. Para isso foram utilizados ratos Wistar, os quais receberam uma dose única de DOX ou salina intraperitoneal (15mg/kg). Avaliamos a expressão de proteínas envolvidas na sensibilidade à insulina e captação de glicose. Os ensaios captação de glicose foram realizados em cultura de miócitos, no qual foi utilizado o agonista de AMPK. O tratamento com DOX causou resistência à insulina e hiperglicemia. No músculo EDL e em miócitos houve menor expressão de GLUT-4 e de AMPk. Em conclusão, o tratamento com DOX causou intolerância à glicose e redução da expressão de AMPk e GLUT-4. A utilização do agonista de AMPk foi capaz de recuperar à intolerância à glicose. / The cancer is considered a major cause of death worldwide. For the treatment of this disease, with frequency are used pharmacological strategies based in chemotherapeutic intervention, in which doxorubicin (DOX) is widely used. Since the skeletal muscle plays an important role in glucose uptake, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of DOX in glucose intolerance. For this Wistar rats which received a single dose of DOX or saline intraperitoneally (15mg / kg). We evaluated the expression of proteins involved in insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake. The glucose uptake assays were performed on culture myocytes, which was used in the agonist of AMPK. The treatment with DOX caused insulin resistance and hyperglycemia. In the EDL muscle myocytes and there was less expression of GLUT4 and AMPK. In conclusion, treatment with DOX caused impaired glucose tolerance and reduction of expression of AMPK and GLUT-4. The use of AMPK agonist was able to recover glucose intolerance.

A proposta deste trabalho é a padronização do método de eletroporação direta (utilizando eletrodos) em músculo sóleo de ratos wistar. Deste processo físico, pudemos variar a voltagem, o número de pulsos e duração do pulso. O objetivo principal foi à busca de um parâmetro ideal onde deveria haver a menor lesão tecidual com a maior quantidade de expressão do GFP. Métodos de análise (fluorescência e histologia) foram utilizados para a determinação da eficiência de transferência de genes, onde se considerou a razão entre as fibras musculares sadias emissoras fluorescência e o número total de fibras sadias. Como resultado, atingimos a taxa de eficiência de (50,3 ± 20%) em transferência de genes, utilizando a voltagem de 25 V, trem de 8 pulsos com duração de 20ms e freqüência de 1Hz. A possibilidade de interferir na função deste músculo abre a perspectiva de se estudar o papel de certos genes na plasticidade muscular esquelética, especialmente no crescimento muscular longitudinal. / The use of electrical pulses for gene transfer has been successfully used to reach significant levels of gene expression in vitro and in vivo. Therefore electroporation can be considered an important device to get further insight on biological mechanisms and also to treatment. The aim of the present work is to achieve a high level of gene transfer throughout electroporation in the soleus muscle of Wistar rats. The muscle was surgically accessed, injected with Hyaluronidase and subsequently injected with a plasmid expressing GFP (Green Fluorescence Protein). Observation of fluorescence produced in situ and also HE (Hematoxilin-eosin) preparations revealed that the best gene transfer efficiency (50, 3 ± 20%) was achieved with 25 V and 8 pulses (1Hz) lasting 20ms. These results point to a potential use of electroporation as a tool for investigating cellular and molecular aspects of skeletal muscle plasticity, especially those that can be approached only in soleus muscle, such as longitudinal growth.