This research focussed on Fair Trade (FT) coffee supply chains in Papua New Guinea. Three research questions were asked. First, do small holders in the FT chains receive higher returns than the smallholders in the conventional chains? Secondly, if smallholders in the FT coffee chains receive higher returns from their coffee than the smallholders in the conventional chains, what are the sources of these higher returns? Finally, if smallholders in the FT chains don't receive higher returns than in the conventional chains, what are the constraints to smallholders receiving higher returns from the FT coffee chains than the conventional chains? A conceptual framework for agribusiness supply chain was developed that was used to guide the field work. A comparative case study methodology was selcted as an appropriate method for eliciting the required information. Four case study chains were selected. A paired FT and conventional coffee chains from Okapa and another paired FT and conventional chains from Kainantu districts, Eastern Highlands Province were selected for the study. The research found that smallholders in the FT chains and vonventional chains receive very similar prices for their coffee (parchment price equivalent). Hence, there was no evidence that smallholders in the FT chains received higher prices or returns from their coffee production than smallholders in conventional chains. This study also found that there was no evidence of FLO certification improving returns to smallholders in the FT chains over those returns received in the conventional chains, but the community that the FT smallholder producers come from did benefit. The sources of these community benefits lies in the shorter FT chains and the distributions of the margin that would have been otherwise made by processors to producers, exporters and the community. In addition, this study found that constraints associated with value creation are similar in all the four chains studies. However, there are some added hurdles for the FT chains in adhering to FT and organic coffee standards. Moreover, FT co-oeratives lacked capacity to trade and their only functions were to help with FLO certification and distribute the FT premium to the community. The findings of this research support some aspects of the literature, but not others. The research contribution is the finding that in this period of high conventional coffee prices, returns to smallholders from FT chains were no bettter than the returns gained in conventional chains, which leads to oppotunism and lack of loyalty by smallholders in the FT chains. The other contribution of this research is in identifying a particular type of free rider who is not a member of the FT co-operative but has right to the community benefits generated by the FT chain.

This thesis enters the context of smallholder agriculture communities in the developing world. It explores the potentials of biochar and what biochar systems could bring to the smallholder communities while simultaneously bringing environmental benefits. It then acknowledges the challenges of diffusion –the spreading of an unfamiliar innovation. It seeks to answer the question of what will make diffusion of biochar systems more successful in the smallholder context, fixating on the characteristic of compatibility as well as the role local community members can play in making a new biochar system more visible to the rest of the communities.

The study was conducted across the four district municipalities in the Free State province of South Africa. The objective of the study was to determine socio-economic factors that affected livestock numbers among smallholder cattle and sheep farmers in the Free State province of South Africa. The research was qualitative and quantitative in nature. Proportionate random sampling method was used to collect data. The population comprised of smallholder cattle and sheep farmers that kept at least 30 livestock. Data between the 2008 and 2012 farming seasons were collected by administering well-structured questionnaires to 250 smallholder cattle and sheep farmers. Data collected were captured and analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS version 22 of 2013) to obtain frequency, cross-tabulation, descriptive statistics and ordinary least square (OLS) regression. Descriptive statistics results indicated that lack of camp systems, drought prevalence, increased feed costs, poor veterinary interventions, insufficient breeding stock, high cost of fuel and transportation, lack of equipment, diseases, stock theft and pilfering, and insufficient grazing land were the prevalent factors that affected cattle and sheep farming in the province.The OLS regression results indicated that the variables that significantly affected livestock numbers were district, household size, livestock numbers in 2008, planted pastures, grazing land condition, grazing land acquisition, service, advice / training, veterinary services, purchase of dosing products and sales per year. The results also indicated that the majority (96.8%) of the smallholder cattle and sheep farmers would like to increase their livestock numbers. It was therefore recommended that extension and veterinary services should be strengthened in the study area. In addition, it was recommended that smallholder livestock farmers should be encouraged to plant pastures to reduce pressure on the natural veld and make forage available throughout the year. Lastly, as a recommendation, government should provide subsidies with distribution policies that will ensure that all smallholder livestock farmers can benefit. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Cette thèse déchiffre les défis rencontrés par les petits producteurs dans l'approvisionnement alimentaire urbain dans les Andes du Nord en Équateur, avec une étude de la structure et du fonctionnement du système d'approvisionnement urbain en produits laitiers à l'échelle nationale. Les stratégies de production et de commercialisation des petits producteurs sont observées au niveau local à travers deux exemples: Machachi et Nono. Le système d'approvisionnement est analysé comme un réseau spatial où les zones de production, les points de vente et de consommation sont interconnectés, ceci générant des dynamiques dialectiques de transformation mutuelle il travers les interactions des différents acteurs. Historiquement, le système s'est structuré en fonction des besoins et des caractéristiques des producteurs de moyenne et grande taille. Cependant, au cours des dernières décennies, les petits producteurs sont devenus des acteurs essentiels grâce à des stratégies entre les villes et la campagne. L'incorporation des petits producteurs dans cette dynamique montre leur grande capacité d'adaptation face aux opportunités générées par un marché en pleine croissance. Malgré tout, leur interaction avec les autres acteurs dénote une inégalité dans les relations de pouvoir qui reste encore peu modifiée. D'autres modalités d'intégration des petits producteurs restent à construire. / This thesis focuses on the small producers challenges in the food supply to cities in the Northern Andes in Ecuador. It analyses the structure and functioning of the complex of dairy product supply to cities at national level. Production and commercialisation strategies adopted by small producers' are studied at local level with two examples: Machachi and Nono. The supply complex is analysed as a spatial network where the areas of production and points of sale and consumption arc interconnected generating dialectical dynamics of mutual transformation through the interaction of all the different stakeholders. Historically the complex has been structured according to the needs and characteristics of the medium and large-sized producers. In the last decades though, small producers have been using different strategies between the countryside and cities und have become key stakeholders. The incorporation of small producers in this dynamic shows their great ability to adapt to opportunities created by a growing market. However, their interactions with the other stakeholders show inequality in the power relations, which has only marginally been addressed. Different modes of integration for small producers are yet to be created. / Esta tesis se interesa por los desafíos de los pequeños productores en el abastecimiento alimentario urbano a través del caso de los Andes norte en Ecuador. Se estudia la estructura y el funcionamiento del complejo de aprovisionamiento urbano de productos lácteos en una escala nacional. Las estrategias productivas y de comercialización de los pequeños productores son observados en una escala local a través de dos ejemplos: Machachi y Nono. El complejo de abastecimiento es analizado como una red espacial, donde las áreas de producción, los puntos de comercialización y de consumo están interelacionados generando dinámicas dialécticas de transformación mutua a través de las interacciones de los diversos actores.Históricamente el complejo ha sido estructurado acorde a las necesidades y características de los productores medianos y grandes. En las últimas décadas, los pequeños productores empleando diversas estrategias productivas y comerciales entre campos y ciudades se han convertido en actores fundamentales.La inclusión de los pequeños productores en esta dinámica muestra su gran capacidad de adaptación frente a las oportunidades generadas por un mercado en crecimiento. A pesar de esto, sus interacciones con a otros actores muestran las inequidades en las relaciones de poder que no han podido ser sino débilmente modificadas. Diferentes modalidades de integración de los pequeños productores lácteos quedan por construirse.

Text in English, Tswana / Low nutrient intake affects metabolism and growth in pregnant heifers and limits milk production in lactating cows on communal area smallholder dairy farms of the subtropics. Two studies were conducted during the current research. The first study evaluated effects of nutrient supply in standardized dairy diets on the growth and body reserves of pregnant Jersey heifers raised on communal area smallholder farms in a semi-arid zone of South Africa. Twenty-two farms with a total of 42 heifers, aged 22 to 28 months which were seven months pregnant at the beginning of the study were selected for the study. These represented the total number of farms with dairy cows in the area that were supported through a structured Dairy Development Program (DDP) of South Africa. Each farm had at least two pregnant Jersey heifers during the summer season of 2016. Each heifer was supplied 2.5 kg of a far-off (60-30 d prepartum) dry cow concentrate and increased to 3.3 kg of the same concentrate at close-up period (29-0 d prepartum). Feeding of concentrate was based on a standardized feeding program as recommended by DDP. During this study, no feeding treatment was imposed on the heifers. Eragrostis curvula hay was supplied by DDP. Daily intake of 7.2 and 5.4 kg; respectively for heifers at 60-30 d prepartum and 29-0 d prepartum was determined based on residual hay. Heifer diet (HD1) and heifer diet HD2 were therefore simulated respectively for cows at 60-30 d preparpartum and 29-0 d prepartum, respectively. Diets were assessed for nutrient composition using chemical analyses and in vitro ruminal degradation. Post ruminal nutrient absorption and animal responses were predicted using the Large Ruminant Nutrition System (LRNS) version 1.0.33 (level 1). Actual measurements of body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS) were done and blood was collected and analysed for proteins monthly. Heifers’ responses were validated against the model predicted values and comparative analysis of animal performance during pregnancy was done against the National Research Council (NRC, 2001) reference values. Relative to the minimum requirement for ruminants, both HD1 and HD2 diets had relative feed value (RFV) below 144. About 35% of HD1 dietary crude protein (CP) was within the slowly degrade neutral detergent fibre (NDF) fraction which is the neutral detergent fibre insoluble crude protein (NDFICP) while 32% was not available as the acid detergent insoluble crude protein (ADICP). Equally, HD2 diet had effectively 5.2% of CP as available protein and the fraction of the slowly degraded NDF constituted only 52.3% of the effective available protein. Energy density of HD1 and HD2 were 25% and 16% higher than expected at far-off and close-up period, respectively. The intake of metabolzable protein (MP) were 32 and 25% higher than predicted for the far-off and close-up period, respectively. Supply of MP was 37 % and was higher than NRC predictions of daily requirement in Jersey cow. This allowed BW gain of 29 kg and BCS of 0.33 which was within 25th percentile for pregnant heifers. Mean concentration of blood urea at both far-off and close-up periods deviated by 25% from NRC values. Creatinine (CR) concentration was 145 μmol /L at far-off and 155 μmol /L at close-up period. The second study assessed the adequacy of two lactation diets fed to 42 primiparous Jersey cows, aged 24 to 30 months during early (1-30 d postpartum) and peak (31-60 d postpartum) periods on the lactation performance of the cows. Cows received 4.5 and 5 kg of dairy concentrate at 1-30 d postpartum and peak milk (31-60 d postpartum) respectively. Eragrostis curvula hay was supplied ad libitum and dry matter intake (DMI) was estimated at 7.2 kg of hay/cow/day from residual hay. No feeding treatment was imposed except for the standardised diets typical to the production environment. Two simulated lactation diets (LD1 and LD2) were prepared based on dry matter intake (DMI) of grass hay and lactation concentrate. Diets were assessed for nutrient composition using wet chemistry and in vitro ruminal degradation. Nutrient supply of diets and absorption from the small intestines as well as cows’ responses were predicted using the Large Ruminant Nutrition System (LRNS) version 1.0.33 (level 1). Body weight and BCS were monitored, blood was collected and analysed for proteins monthly. A record of milk yield was taken daily, and milk was analysed for fat, protein, lactose and urea nitrogen weekly. Cows had DMI of 11.2 kg which was 12% higher than the expected at 1-30 d postpartum period and 11.6 kg which was 21% higher than the expected in 31-60 d postpartum cows. Diets had low available protein as % of dietary protein (LD1=46%; LD2=45%) and the slowly degraded NDF fraction (NDFICP) constituted 64% of the available protein. Intake of energy was 20% and 17% lower than the predicted value for the cows, respectively, at 1-30 d postpartum and 31-60 d postpartum period. Cows had negative energy balance of -6.5 and -5.6 Mcal respectively at 1-30 d postpartum and 31-60 d postpartum cows. Protein intake of lactating cows was low, which resulted in negative protein balance of 59% and 42% of cow’s daily requirement, respectively, at 1-30 d postpartum period and 31-60 d postpartum period. There was loss of BW and BCS, low milk yield, energy corrected milk (ECM: 9.50 kg/d) and feed efficiency (FE) of less than 1 (LD1= 0.85; LD2 =0.89) in cows at both periods. Composition of fat, protein and lactose in milk were negatively affected by the low level of dietary protein. Somatic cell count (SCC) in milk was 121 ± 13 x 103/ml and cows did not show signs of illness. Mean milk urea nitrogen (MUN) concentration was 12 ± 2.7 mg/dl reflecting the low protein status of the lactating cows. Cows had high creatinine concentration of 116 and 102 μmol /L at 1-30 d postpartum and 31-61 d postpartum period, respectively, which may indicate muscle breakdown due to heat stress relative to the hot production environment. Results showed that diets fed to dairy cows on communal area smallholder farms in Sekhukhune and Vhembe districts in Limpopo province had low feeding value and their low nutrient supply affected rumen fermentation, heifers’ ‘growth, body reserves and early lactation in Jersey dairy cows. In conclusion, diets supplied to dairy cows raised on smallholder farms are low in nutrients and do not support efficient growth in heifers and optimal milk production in early lactation. Development of a nutrition plan for improved dairy diets is required to maximise production and longevity in cows and enhance sustainability of dairy production on the smallholder farms in South Africa. / Go ja dijo tse di nang le dikotla tse di kwa tlase go ama metaboliseme le kgolo ya meroba e e dusang mme e ngotla tlhagiso ya mašwi ya dikgomo tse di tlhagisang mašwi mo dipolaseng tse dinnye tse di tlhakanetsweng mo mafelong a a mogote. Go dirilwe dithutopatlisiso di le pedi jaaka karolo ya patlisiso ya ga jaana. Thutopatlisiso ya ntlha e sekasekile ditlamorago tsa tlamelo ya dikotla mo dijong tsa teri tse di rulagantsweng mo kgolong le dirasefe tsa mmele tsa meroba ya Dijeresi e e dusang mo dipolaseng tse dinnye tse di tlhakanetsweng mo karolong e e batlileng e nna sekaka mo Aforika Borwa. Go tlhophilwe dipolase di le 22 tse di nang le meroba e le 42, e e bogolo jo bo magareng ga dikgwedi tse 22 le 28 mme e na le dikgwedi tse supa e ntse e dusa kwa tshimologong ya thutopatlisiso. Tsone di emetse palogotlhe ya dipolase tse di mo karolong eo tse di tshegediwang ke Lenaneo le le rulaganeng la Tlhabololo ya Teri (DDP). Polase nngwe le nngwe e ne e na le bonnye meroba ya Jeresi e le mebedi e e dusang ka paka ya selemo sa 2016. Moroba mongwe le mongwe o ne o fepiwa ka 2.5 kg ya dijo tse di omileng tsa dikgomo tsa fa go sa ntse go le kgakala (malatsi a le 60-30 pele ga go tsala) mme tsa okediwa go nna 3.3 kg fa malatsi a atamela (malatsi a le 29-0 pele ga go tsala). Dijo tseno di ne di di rulagantswe go ya ka lenaneo le le rulagantsweng la kotlo le le atlenegisitsweng ke DDP. Mo nakong ya thutopatlisiso eno, ga go na kalafi epe ya kotlo e e neng e patelediwa meroba. DDP e ne e tlamela ka furu ya eragrostis curvula. Go ja ga letsatsi le letsatsi ga meroba ga 7.2 le 5.4 kg ka nako ya malatsi a le 60-30 pele ga go tsala le malatsai a le 29-0 pele ga go tsala go ne go ikaegile ka furu e e setseng. Ka jalo go ne ga tlhagisiwa gape kotlo ya meroba ya 1 (HD1) le kotlo ya meroba ya 2 (HD2) mo dikgomong tse di mo malatsing a le 60-30 pele ga go tsala le malatsi a le 29-0 pele ga go tsala. Dikotlo tseno di ne tsa sekwasekwa go bona go nna gona ga dikotla mo go tsona go dirisiwa tshekatsheko ya dikhemikale mo mogodung. Go ne ga bonelwa pele monyelo ya dikotla morago ga go feta mo mpeng ya ntlha le tsibogo ya diphologolo go ya ka Thulaganyo ya Kotlo ya Diotli tse Dikgolo (LRNS) mofuta wa 1.0.33 (legato 1). Go dirilwe tekanyo ya boima jwa mmele (BW) le maduo a seemo sa mmele (BCS) mme go ne ga tsewa madi le go a sekaseka go bona diporoteini kgwedi le kgwedi. Tsibogo ya meroba e ne ya tlhomamisiwa ka dipalo tse di bonetsweng pele tsa sekao mme ga dirwa tshekatsheko e e tshwantshanyang ya tiragatso ya diphologolo ka nako ya go dusa go dirisiwa dipalo tsa Lekgotla la Bosetšhaba la Dipatlisiso (NRC, 2001). Malebana le ditlhokegopotlana tsa diotli, HD1 le HD2 di ne di na le boleng jo bo tshwantshanyegang jwa kotlo (RFV) jo bo kwa tlase ga 144. Poroteini e e tala (CP) ya dijo e e ka nnang 35% ya HD1 e ne e le mo karolwaneng ya tekanyetso ya faeba e e bolang ka iketlo (NDF) e leng poroteini e e tala ya faeba e e lekanyediwang (NDFICP), fa 32% di ne di seyo jaaka poroteini e tala e e sa monyelegeng ya esete (ADICP). Fela jalo, HD2 e na le 5.2% tsa CP e e dirang jaaka poroteini e e teng mme karolo ya NDF e e bolang ka iketlo e ntse fela 52.3% tsa poroteini e e dirang e e gona. Bogolo jwa maikatlapelo a HD1 le HD2 bo ne bo le kwa godimo ka 25% le 16% go na le jaaka go ne go solofetswe mo dipakeng tse di kgakala le tse di atamelang. Go jewa ga poroteini e e silegang (MP) go ne go le kwa godimo ka 32% le 25% go na le jaaka go ne go solofetswe mo dipakeng tse di kgakala le tse di atamelang. Tlamelo ya MP e ne e le 37%, e leng e e kgolwane go na le diponelopele tsa NRC tsa ditlhokego tsa letsatsi le letsatsi tsa dikgomo tsa Jeresi. Seno se letlile gore go nne le koketsego ya BW ya 29 kg le BCS ya 0.33 e leng se se neng se le mo diperesenteng tsa bo25 tsa meroba e e dusang. Go nna teng ga urea ya madi mo dipakeng tse dikgakala le tse di atamelang go ne go farologane ka 25% go tswa mo dipalong tsa NRC. Go nna teng ga kereitini (CR) e ne e le 145 μmol/L mo pakeng e e kgakala le 155 μmol/L mo pakeng e e atamelang. Thutopatlisiso ya bobedi e sekasekile ditlamorago tsa dijo tse pedi tsa tlhagiso ya mašwi mo tiragatsong ya tlhagiso ya mašwi ya dikgomo tsa Jeresi di le 42 tse e leng la ntlha di tsala tsa bogolo jwa dikgwedi tse di magareng ga 24 le 30 mo pakeng ya ntlha (malatsi a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala) le ya setlhoa (malatsi a le 31-60 morago ga go tsala). Dikgomo di amogetse 4,5 le 5 kg ya motswako wa teri mo dipakeng tsa mašwi tsa ntlha (malatsi a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala) le tsa setlhowa (malatsi a le 31-60 morago ga go tsala). Go ne go tlamelwa ka furu ya eragrostis curvula go ya ka tlhokego mme go ja dijo tse di omileng (DMI) go ne go lekanyediwa go 7.2 kg ya furu/ka kgomo/ka letsatsi go tswa mo furung e e neng e setse. Go ne go sa patelediwe kalafi epe ya phepo, kwa ntle fela ga dijo tse di rulagantsweng tse di tshwanetseng tikologo ya tlhagiso. Go ne ga baakanngwa dijo tsa tlhagiso ya mašwi tse di tlhagisitsweng gape (LD 1 le LD 2) di ikaegile ka go jewa ga tse di omileng (DMI) e leng furu ya tlhaga le metswako ya tlhagiso ya mašwi. Go nna teng ga dikotla ga dijo tseno go ne ga lekanyediwa go dirisiwa khemisitiri e e bongola le go bola mo mpeng ga in vitro. Go ne ga bonelwa pele tlamelo ya dikotla ya dijo, monyelo go tswa mo maleng a mannye mme go ne ga bonelwa pele tsibogo ya dikgomo go dirisiwa Thulaganyo ya Kotlo ya Diotli tse Dikgolo (LRNS) mofuta wa 1.0.33 (legato 1). Go ne ga elwa tlhoko boima jwa mmele le BCS, go ne ga tsewa madi mme a sekasekwa go bona diporoteini kgwedi le kgwedi. Go ne ga rekotiwa tlhagiso ya mašwi letsatsi le letsatsi mme mašwi a sekasekwa go bona mafura, poroteini, laketose le urea naeterojini beke le beke. Dikgomo di ne di na le DMI ya 11.2 kg, e e neng e le kwa godingwaga ka 12% go na le jaaka go ne go solofetswe mo pakeng ya malatsi a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala, le DMI ya 11.6 kg, e e neng e le kwa godingwana ka 12% go na le jaaka go ne go solofetswe mo dikgomong tse di nang le malatsi a le 31-60 di tsetse. Dijo di ne di na le poroteini e e gona e e kwa tlase jaaka peresente ya poroteini ya dijo (LD1=46% le LD2=45%) mme karolwana ya NDF e e bodileng ka bonya (NDFICP) e nnile 64% tsa poroteini e e gona. Go jewa ga maikatlapelo go ne go le kwa tlasenyana ka 20% le 17% go na le dipalo tse dineng di bonetswe pele mo dikgomong mo dipakeng tsa malatsi a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala le malatsi a le 31-60 morago ga go tsala. Go rekotilwe balanse ya maikatlapelo a a tlhaelang a dikgomo ya -6.5 le -5.6 Mcal mo malatsing a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala le 31-60 morago ga go tsala. Go jewa ga poroteini ke dikgomo tse di tlhagisang mašwi go ne go le kwa tlase, mme seo sa baka balanse e e tlhaelang ya poroteini ya 59% le 42% tsa ditlhokego tsa letsatsi le letsatsi tsa dikgomo mo pakeng ya malatsi a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala le malatsi a le 31-60 morago ga go tsala. Go rekotilwe tatlhegelo ya BW le BCS, tlhagiso e e kwa tlase ya mašwi, mašwi a a baakantsweng maikatlapelo (ECM: 9.50 kg/ka letsatsi) le bokgoni jwa furu (FE) jo bo kwa tlase ga 1 (LD1=0.85; LD2=0.89) mo dikgomong mo dipakeng tseo tsotlhe. Go nna teng ga mafura, poroteini le laketouse mo mašwing di amegile ka tsela e e sa siamang ka ntlha ya seelo se se kwa tlase sa poroteini e e kwa tlase. Tekanyetso ya disele tsa somatiki (SCC) mo mašwing e ne e le 121±13x10³/ml mme dikgomo ga di a bontsha matshwao ape a bolwetsi. Motswako wa urea naeterojini ya mašwi (MUN) e ne e le 12±2.7mg/dl, e leng se se bontshang seemo se se kwa tlase sa poroteini sa dikgomo tse di tlhagisang mašwi. Dikgomo tseno di ne di na le motswako wa kereitine wa 116 le 102 μmol/L mo dipakeng tsa malatsi a le 1-30 morago ga go tsala le malatsi a le 31-61 morago ga go tsala, mme seo se ka supa go fokotsega ga mesifa ka ntlha ya kgatelelo ya mogote e e bakwang ke tikologo e e mogote e go tlhagisiwang mo go yona. Dipholo di bontshitse gore dijo tsa dikgomo tsa teri mo dipolaseng tse dinnye tse di tlhakanetsweng mo dikgaolong tsa Sekhukhune le Vhembe kwa Porofenseng ya Limpopo di na le boleng jo bo kwa tlase jwa kotlo le gore dijo tse di nang le dikotla tse dinnye di amile titielo ya dijo, kgolo ya meroba, dirasefe tsa mmele le tlhagiso ya mašwi ka bonako mo dikgomong tsa teri tsa Jeresi. Kwa bokhutlong, dijo tsa dikgomo tsa teri tse di godisediwang mo dipolaseng tse dinnye di na le dikotla tse di kwa tlase mme ga di tshegetse kgolo e e mosola ya meroba le tlhagiso e e siameng ya mašwi mo nakong ya ntlha ya tlhagiso ya mašwi. Go tlhokega leano la dikotla go tokafatsa dijo tsa teri go tokafatsa tlhagiso le go tshela sebaka ga dikgomo le go tokafatsa go nnela leruri ga tlhagiso ya teri mo dipolaseng tse dinnye mo Aforika Borwa. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / Ph.D. (Agriculture)

MRDV / Institute for Rural Development / See the attached abstract below

Ghana has experienced a remarkable degradation and depletion of its forest resources over the last 100 years. This process has undermined the socio-economic and socio-cultural importance of the forests for millions of rural people who depend on the resource to support their livelihood. Many rural households have over the past three decades developed strategies to minimize the effects of forest depletion on their livelihood. The establishment of smallholder forest plantation on agricultural land has emerged as an important form of land-use for households to diversify their sources of income and also improve their socio-economic well-being. The main objective of the study was to identify and analyze the endogenous and exogenous factors inducing farm household’s decision to establish farm forest plantation and to analyze its financial contribution to household’s income and livelihood strategies. The study involved a survey of 280 randomly selected farm households from five communities in the Offinso district in Ghana. The multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was used to select as many as 165 households with farm forest plantation as well as 115 without farm forest plantation. A mixture of tools including semi-structured questionnaire, focus group discussions, wealth ranking, forest inventory and market surveys were used to collect the required data. Results from logistic regression analysis revealed that the age of the household head, the number of years of education of the household head, the amount of household labor, the size of household landholding, the ownership of permanent land, the availability of non-agricultural land and household’s participation in past forest plantation development projects are the most important endogenous factors influencing the farm household’s decision to establish farm forest plantation. On the other hand, exogenous factors such as the availability of market and buyers for farm forest products and farm household’s satisfaction with market prices for farm forest products positively influenced the household’s decision to establish farm forest plantation. Prohibitive rules and regulations relating to the harvesting of trees and transportation of timber from private lands and uncertainty in tree tenure as a result of ambiguous policy framework, however, negatively influenced the decision to establish smallholder forest plantation on their agricultural land. The results from household income portfolio analysis show that cash income from selling farm forest products contributed an average of $273.6 to total household’s income in one agricultural season. This amount accounted for 17.6% of total household’s income and represented the second most important source of income after agriculture. The profitability of different land-uses practiced by the households was analyzed using a conventional economic method (Net Present Value). The results from a comparative financial analysis show that the establishment of teak plantation on agricultural land inter-cropped with food crops is the most profitable form of land use for the households compared to pure teak plantation and maize-plantain cultivation. The results of the study underscore the potential contribution of smallholder farm forest plantation to increase the overall household’s income and thereby improve household’s well-being. / Ghana hat während der letzten 100 Jahre eine bemerkenswerte Degradation und Verminderung seines Waldvorkommens erlebt. Dieser Prozess hat die sozio-ökonomische und sozial-kulturelle Bedeutung des Waldes als Einkommensquelle zur Unterstützung des Lebensunterhalts für Millionen ländlicher Einwohner geschwächt. Während der letzen 30 Jahre haben viele Kleinbauern Haushalte Strategien entwickelt um den Effekt, den die Verminderung des Waldvorkommens auf ihren Lebensunterhalt hat, zu minimieren. Die Anlage kleinflächiger Forstplantagen auf Ackerland hat sich dabei als wichtige Form der Landnutzung erwiesen, da sie eine Einkommensquelle zusätzlich zu den vorhandenen bedeuten. Sie haben das Potential, die sozio-ökonomiche Situation der Bevölkerung zu verbessern. Ziel der Studie war die Identifizierung von internen und externen Faktoren, die bedeutend zur Entscheidung von Haushalten über die Errichtung kleinflächiger Forstplantagen beitragen. Desweiteren sollten der finanzielle Beitrag der Forstplantagen zum Einkommen und zu Strategien der Kleinbauern analysiert werden. Für die Sudie werden Datensätze von 280 zufällig ausgewählten landwirtschaftlichen Haushalten aus fünf Gemeinden im Offinso Distrikt in Ghana erfasst. Die mehrstufig aufgebaute zufällige Auswahltechnik wurde benutzt, um die 165 Haushalte mit Forstplantagen und 115 Haushalten ohne Forstplantagen für die Studie auszuwählen. Mehrere Instrumente, wurden genutzt um die benötigten Daten zu sammeln darunter vor allem semi-strukturierte Befragungen, fokusierte Gruppendiskussionen, Wohlstandsranking der Haushalte und eine Forstinventur. Ergebnisse einer logistischen Regressionsanalyse ergaben, dass das Alter des Haushaltsvorstands, die Anzahl der Ausbildungsjahre des Haushaltsvorstands, die Anzahl der im Haushalt vorhandenen Arbeitskräfte, die Größe des dem Haushalt zur Verfügung stehenden Ackerlandes, das Eigentum an Ackerland, verfügbare nicht-landwirtschaftlich nutzbare Flächen und die Teilnahme der Haushalte an Projekten zur Forstplantagenentwicklung die wichtigsten internen Faktoren für die Entscheidung der Kleinbauern zur Errichtung von kleinflächiger Forstpantagen darstellen. Andererseits beeinflussten externe Faktoren wie das Vorhandensein von Markt und Käufern für Produkte der Forstplantagen und die Zufriedenheit der Haushalte mit den gebotenen Marktpreisen für diese Produkte die Entscheidung der Kleinbauern zur Errichtung von Forstplantagen positiv. Demgegenüber beeinflussten Verbote und einschränkende Regelungen zur Ernte und zum Transport von Bäumen auf Privatland und die Unsicherheit bezüglich des Eigentums an den Bäumen als Ergebniss unklarer politischer Vorgaben die Entscheidung zur Errichtung von kleinflächiger Forstplantagen auf Ackerland negativ. Das Ergebniss der Analyse verschiedene Haushaltseinkommensquellen zeigt, dass das Jahreseinkommen der Haushalte mit Forstplantagen höher ist als das der Haushalte ohne Forstplantagen. Der Beitrag zum Jahreseinkommen aus dem Verkauf von Produkten der kleinflächiger Forstplantagen betrug im Durchschnitt 273,6 USD in einer landwirtschaftlichen Saison. Dies entsprach 17,6 % des gesamten Haushaltseinkommens und stellte somit die zweitwichtigste Einkommensquelle nach der Landwirtschaft dar. Die Rentabilität der verschiedenen Landnutzungsarten wurde mit der Kapitalwertmethode (Net Present Value) ermittelt. Diese vergleichende Analyse zeigte, dass kleinflächiger Forstplantagen auf Agrarland bei gleichzeitigem Anbau von Nahrungsmittel die profitabelste Art der Landnutzung für die Haushalte im Vergeich zu ausschließlichem Teakanbau und zum Anbau von Mais mit Kochbanane ist. Die Ergebnisse der Studie unterstreichen das Potential kleinflächiger Forstplantagen, einen Beitrag zur Steigerung des gesamten Haushaltseinkommens und zur Verbesserung des Lebensstandards der Haushalte leisten zu können.

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This study examines rural household food security and its determinants in drought-prone Amhara Region of Ethiopia by focusing on Lay Gaint district as a case study site. A range of factors from physical environmental circumstances to policy and institutions-related issues determine households‟ vulnerability to food insecurity and livelihood outcomes. The survey results showed that the majority (74%) of the sampled households experienced food insecurity. The situation was worse among female-headed households such that 86% of them were food insecure. The study revealed that, despite the low level of productivity related to local environmental constraints, rural livelihoods remain undiversified with small scale rain-fed agriculture to provide the primary source of livelihood for the large majority of households (~93% of respondents). Only about 25% of the respondents participated in some form of non-farm or off-farm activities, but with only little contribution to their total annual incomes. Food insecurity is a chronic problem in that, on average, households in the study area consume from own production for only about six months. The study found out that the majority of households (about 80%) perceived annual rainfall to be inadequate to support the growing of crops and grazing of animals. The main adaptive strategies employed by the majority of households included diversifying livestock kept, planting trees and diversifying crops. The study revealed that incidence, depth and severity of food insecurity of the food insecure households showed that Woina-Dega and Kolla agro-ecologies are prone to vulnerability to food insecurity. This suggests that development interventions that are geographically differentiated; and build household assets will improve household food security in the study area, and in other similar environments in the country. / Geography / D. Phil. (Geography)

This study explores the question of how soil-less agriculture through hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics can empower smallholder farmers to achieve food sovereignty as portrayed in documentaries. It addresses the power imbalance between large corporations and smallholder farmers in the traditional agriculture industry. Documentary research approach is used to understand the various applications and research aspects of soil-less agriculture from around the world. Real-life examples from different countries where these methods have been successfully implemented in the agriculture industry, ranging from large industrial settings to smallholder farmers in disadvantaged communities, are analyzed. Further, content analysis is done on these documents by constructing a matrix that combines the process of empowerment and the six pillars of food sovereignty to analyze the different forms of empowerment. The study also investigates how the use of soil-less agriculture can build capabilities through enhanced “well-being freedom” and “agency freedom” and empower smallholder farmers to achieve food sovereignty.