Os gatos domésticos podem ser utilizados como modelo no estudo da Família Felidae, pois não atingem grandes proporções físicas, são encontrados em altas densidades populacionais por todo o mundo e compartilham com felinos selvagens grande variedade de marcações odoríferas. A transferência de odores entre os gatos e o meio ambiente ocorre por contatos corporais e eliminação de excretas, sendo urina e fezes importantes carreadores de informação química em quase todos os mamíferos terrestres, facilitando as interações sociais entre os indivíduos. O objetivo do presente estudo foi analisar aspectos do comportamento de gatos domésticos, com destaque para a comunicação química, via fezes e urina, entre estes animais, bem como para as relações entre estes aspectos e sua estrutura social intra-específica. Foram utilizados gatos domésticos (Felis silvestris catus), sem raça definida, de ambos os sexos, incluindo filhotes, juvenis e adultos, sendo estes castrados com um ano de idade, mantidos em alta (0,3 animais/m2) ou em baixa densidade populacional (0,04 animais/m2). A coleta dos dados comportamentais de eliminação de fezes e urina foi realizada utilizando-se o método amostral “animal focal". Foram registrados o número de movimentos e o tempo gasto para cavar um buraco no solo (antes do animal defecar ou urinar), o número de movimentos e o tempo gasto para enterrar as fezes ou urina, e se houve verificação olfativa dos excrementos. Foram registrados os locais onde os animais depositavam suas excretas e foram comparados os comportamentos destes longe ou perto dos locais de descanso e alimentação, na área de alta densidade populacional. Foram, também, comparados os comportamentos dos animais nas duas áreas de estudo. Quanto à organização social, foram registrados quais indivíduos estavam dormindo ou descansando em contato físico direto com outros indivíduos, nas duas áreas. Além disso, foram registrados os locais (caixas) ocupados pelos animais para descanso, em função da altura. Os resultados mostraram que os animais executam número maior de movimentos (com os membros anteriores) e gastam maior tempo para enterrar suas fezes, se comparados à urina. As fêmeas mostram esforço maior do que os machos, após a eliminação das fezes, o que pode indicar uma estratégia para a proteção dos filhotes. Em alta densidade populacional, os animais dedicam maior esforço para enterrar suas fezes, se comparados aos que vivem em baixa densidade. Quanto às verificações olfativas, as fezes são verificadas mais freqüentemente do que a urina, em machos e fêmeas, tanto em alta quanto em baixa densidade populacional. Em alta densidade, tanto os machos quanto as fêmeas depositam suas fezes longe, enquanto depositam sua urina perto dos locais utilizados para descanso e alimentação. Quanto à organização social, a alta densidade populacional parece propiciar maior número de contatos físicos direto entre os animais, do que a baixa densidade. Além disso, os animais preferem ocupar as caixas localizadas em posições mais altas do que as caixas mais baixas, e alguns animais restringem sua ocupação às caixas altas ou baixas, o que pode indicar uma estratificação social, de acordo com a posição hierárquica do animal no grupo. / Domestic cats may be used as a model for the study of the Felidae family, since they do not reach greater physical proportions, are found in high population densities all over the world and share with wild felids a variety of scent marks methods. Odor transference between cats and the environment occurs through corporal contacts and elimination of feces and urine, which seem to be important carriers of chemical information in almost all terrestrial mammals, thus facilitating social interactions between individuals. The aim of the present study was to analyze aspects of the behavior of domestic cats, with emphasis in chemical communication through feces and urine between animals, and the relationships between these aspects and their intraspecific social structure. The study was carried out in domestic cats (Felis silvestris catus) from both sexes, without defined race, including kittens, youthful and adults neutered with nearly one year old; animals were kept in high (0,3 animals/m2) or in low population density (0,04 animals/m2). The collection of the behavioral data for elimination of feces and urine was carried out using the “focal animal" method. The number of movements and the time spent to dig a hole in the ground (before the animals defecate or urinate), the number of movements and the time spent to bury their feces or urine, and whether olfative verification of the excrements was or not performed were carefully recorded. Recordings also involved the places where the animals deposited their excrements and the behavior patterns farther or closer to the places used for rest and feeding were compared, in the area of high population density. Also, the two areas of study were compared regarding animal behavior. As far as social organization is concerned, it was recorded which individuals were sleeping or resting in direct physical contact with other individuals, in both areas of study. Moreover, the places (boxes) used by the animals for resting, in function of their height, were also recorded. Results show that animals execute a greater number of forelimb movements and spend more time to bury feces, when compared to urine. Females show more effort after the elimination of feces than males, which may indicate a strategic behavior for the kitten protection. Animals dedicate more effort to bury feces in high population density, when compared to low population density. Regarding olfative verifications, feces are verified more frequently than urine, for both males and females, not only in high but also in low population density. In high population density, males and females deposit feces farther and urine closer to the places used for rest and feeding. As far as social organization is concerned, high population density seems to propitiate greater number of direct physical contacts between animals than low population density. Moreover, animals show predilection for occupying boxes located in higher positions, than the lower ones, and some animals restrict their occupation to either the high or the low boxes, which may indicate some degree of social stratification in the group, according to animal hierarchical position.

Grupos de primatas podem ser caracterizados quanto à organização social, que diz respeito a tamanho, razão sexual e dispersão espaço temporal entre os indivíduos. A dispersão refere-se à distância mantida entre os membros de um grupo social. A variação na distância entre os indivíduos permite ao grupo se adaptar de forma dinâmica à flutuação na distribuição de riscos e recursos no ambiente, e também é uma importante característica de uma dinâmica de fissão e fusão. Trabalhos realizados com macacos-prego em área de Mata Atlântica sugerem que eles podem forragear em subgrupos em resposta à diminuição na oferta e distribuição das fontes de alimento, mas nenhum estudo abordou, de forma quantitativa, a variação na dispersão do grupo, medida como distância interindividual. A presente pesquisa teve o objetivo de investigar a variação temporal da distância entre os indivíduos de um grupo de macacos-prego (Sapajus nigritus), e suas relações com o orçamento de atividades, distâncias percorridas e limite de dispersão, em área de Mata Atlântica, o Parque Estadual Carlos Botelho (PECB). Investigamos as seguintes hipóteses: (1) o comportamento dos indivíduos influencia a variação da distância entre eles, (2) a distância percorrida pelo grupo varia conforme a distância entre os indivíduos e (3) o risco de predação limita a distância máxima mantida entre os indivíduos do grupo. Entre dezembro de 2013 e maio de 2015, foi estudado um grupo de S. nigritus composto por quatro adultos, três jovens e um infante. O esforço de campo total foi de 501h01min, totalizando 172h45min de contato com o grupo. Para medir a dispersão, as coordenadas da localização dos dois indivíduos mais distantes entre si foi obtida com auxílio de dois aparelhos de GPS a cada varredura. Uma análise de séries temporais mostrou variação na dispersão do grupo ao longo do tempo, inclusive entre as varreduras, sugerindo uma dinâmica de fissão e fusão fluida. Apesar dessa variação, o grupo teve uma tendência em modular a distância entre os membros da unidade social, voltando sempre a uma medida de tendência central, que foi de 36 metros. Uma análise de função de transferência indicou que o grupo ficou mais disperso quando estava se alimentando de frutos do que em outras atividades. Não houve correlação entre a dispersão e a distância percorrida pelo grupo entre cada varredura. Os resultados obtidos corroboraram a hipótese 1. A distância entre os indivíduos do grupo variou de acordo com o comportamento, aumentando quando os animais estavam se alimentado de frutos, provavelmente como forma de diminuir a competição alimentar. As hipóteses 2 e 3 foram rejeitadas: não houve correlação entre a dispersão dos indivíduos com a distância percorrida pelo grupo, provável resultado de uma estratégia que visa diminuir os custos do deslocamento entre as fontes de alimento de localização já conhecida; também a dispersão do grupo foi maior pela manhã, período de maior risco de predação, e não variou com a atividade de descanso, quando a vulnerabilidade à predação é maior. Provavelmente, o limite de dispersão do grupo está relacionado com a distância de detecção da vocalização de outros indivíduos da unidade social, e não com o risco de predação / Primate groups can be characterized as social organization, with respect to size, sex ratio and spatiotemporal dispersion between individuals. The dispersion refers to the distance maintained between the members of a social group. The variation in distance between individuals allows the group to adapt dynamically to fluctuations in the distribution of risks and resources in the environment, and is also an important feature of the fission and fusion dynamics. Work carried out with capuchin monkeys in Atlantic Forest area suggest that they can forage in subgroups in response to the decrease in the offer and distribution of food supplies, but no study has addressed, in a quantitative manner, the variation in the group dispersion, measured as interindividual distance. This research aimed to investigate the temporal change of distance between individuals of a group of capuchin monkeys (Sapajus nigritus), and their relationship to the activities budget, distances traveled and dispersion limit, in Atlantic Forest area, the Carlos Botelho State Park (PECB). We investigated the following assumptions: (1) the behavior of individuals influences the change of distance between them, (2) the distance traveled by the group varies according to the distance between individuals and (3) the risk of predation limits the maximum dispersion distance between the group members. Between December 2013 and May 2015, a group of S. nigritus composed of four adults, three juveniles and an infant was studied. The total field effort was 501h01min, totaling 172h45min of contact with the group. To measure dispersion, the coordinates of the location of the two individuals most distant to each other was obtained in each scan with the employment of two GPS. A time series analysis showed a variation in the group dispersion over time, even between scans, suggesting a fluid fission and fusion dynamic. Despite this variation, the group had a tendency to modulate the distance between the members of the social unit, always returning to a measure of central tendency, which was 36 meters. A transfer function analysis indicated that the group was more dispersed when it was feeding on fruit than in other activities. There was no correlation between the dispersion and the distance traveled by the group between each scan. The results confirmed the hypothesis 1. The distance between the group members varied according to the behavior, increasing when the animals were fed on fruits, probably as a way to reduce food competition. Hypotheses 2 and 3 were rejected: there was no correlation between the dispersion of individuals with the distance traveled by the group, likely by the result of a strategy to reduce the traveled costs between the food sources of known location; also the group dispersal was higher in the morning, period of increased risk of predation, and did not vary with the activity of rest, when the vulnerability to predation is higher. Probably, the group dispersion limit is associated with the vocalization detection distance of others group members, and not tied with the risk of predation

Summary: "The ignorance which, generally speaking, prevails regarding the true character of the aboriginal population is not wonderful, simply because we know that there is no other branch of knowledge of which men are so thoroughly ignorant as the study of man himself. the constitution of man, mental as well as bodily, forms as yet no part of the ordinary course of education; and men are sent forth into the world to meet, deal, and to treat with one another, in total ignorance of each other�s character. it is not, under such circumstances, to be wonderer at, that, even in civilized life, disputes, quarrels, and troubles should exist; how much less so when the two extremes, the savage and the civilized, are brought into contact with one another."(1) With these words Dr. Martin, in 1845, outlined the need for special training for those who had to deal with native races, whether as missionaries, administrators, or merely as settlers amongst them. All those who came into contact with the Maoris had, of necessity, to study their ways to a certain extent, and some naturally, were more proficient in this than were their fellows. Wherever there was one who, through his understanding of the native character and the strength of his influence, was able to guide both Maori and Pakeha in their relations with one another, there the two peoples lived in peace. Dissension arose through the ignorance of either party of laws of the other, or because those laws were deliberately flouted. Training in the study of man, as suggested by Martin, would have dispelled this ignorance and inculcated a spirit of tolerance which could have eased much of the friction that ensued. Where it was essential to compromise on conflicting points, or where the weaker of the two parties was forced to conform to the ways of the other, then again this training would have indicated the best procedure to be adopted. But no system of schooling at that time included a study of anything like anthropology, which was then an unthought-of science, and the only hope of harmonious race relations lay in the possibility that certain of those in responsible positions amongst both Europeans and Maoris would have enough wit to discern the right course--Introduction.

<p>The aim of this thesis is to study phylogeny, species-wide phylogeography and genetic diversity in <i>Formica</i> ants across Eurasia in connection with the history of biotic responses to Quaternary environmental changes.</p><p>The mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of Palaearctic <i>Formica</i> species supported the subgeneric grouping based on morphological similarity. The exception was that <i>F. uralensis</i> formed a separate phylogenetic group. The mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of the <i>F. rufa </i>group showed the division into three major phylogenetic groups: one with the species <i>F. polyctena</i> and <i>F. rufa</i>, one with <i>F. aquilonia</i>, <i>F. lugubris</i> and <i>F. paralugubris</i>, and the third one with <i>F. pratensis</i>.</p><p>West-east phylogeographic divisions were found in <i>F. pratensis</i> suggesting post-glacial colonization of western Europe and a wide area from Sweden to the Baikal Lake from separate forest refugia. In contrast, no phylogeographic divisions were detected in either <i>F. lugubris </i>or<i> F. exsecta</i>. Contraction of the distribution range to a single refugial area during the late Pleistocene and the following population expansion could offer a general explanation for the lack of phylogeographic structure across most of Eurasia in these species.</p><p>Sympatrically distributed and ecologically similar species <i>F. uralensis </i>and<i> F. candida</i> showed clear difference in the phylogeographic structure that reflected difference in their vicariant history. Whereas no phylogeographic divisions were detected in <i>F. uralensis</i> across Europe, <i>F. candida</i> showed a well-supported phylogeographic division between the western, the central and the southern group.</p><p>In socially polymorphic <i>F. cinerea</i>, the overall level of intrapopulation microsatellite diversity was relatively high and differentiation among populations was low, indicating recent historical connections. The lack of correspondence between genetic affinities and geographic locations of studied populations did not provide any evidence for differentiating between alternative hypotheses concerning the directions and sources of postglacial colonization of Fennoscandia.</p>

The aim of this thesis is to study phylogeny, species-wide phylogeography and genetic diversity in Formica ants across Eurasia in connection with the history of biotic responses to Quaternary environmental changes. The mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of Palaearctic Formica species supported the subgeneric grouping based on morphological similarity. The exception was that F. uralensis formed a separate phylogenetic group. The mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of the F. rufa group showed the division into three major phylogenetic groups: one with the species F. polyctena and F. rufa, one with F. aquilonia, F. lugubris and F. paralugubris, and the third one with F. pratensis. West-east phylogeographic divisions were found in F. pratensis suggesting post-glacial colonization of western Europe and a wide area from Sweden to the Baikal Lake from separate forest refugia. In contrast, no phylogeographic divisions were detected in either F. lugubris or F. exsecta. Contraction of the distribution range to a single refugial area during the late Pleistocene and the following population expansion could offer a general explanation for the lack of phylogeographic structure across most of Eurasia in these species. Sympatrically distributed and ecologically similar species F. uralensis and F. candida showed clear difference in the phylogeographic structure that reflected difference in their vicariant history. Whereas no phylogeographic divisions were detected in F. uralensis across Europe, F. candida showed a well-supported phylogeographic division between the western, the central and the southern group. In socially polymorphic F. cinerea, the overall level of intrapopulation microsatellite diversity was relatively high and differentiation among populations was low, indicating recent historical connections. The lack of correspondence between genetic affinities and geographic locations of studied populations did not provide any evidence for differentiating between alternative hypotheses concerning the directions and sources of postglacial colonization of Fennoscandia.

In the Zimbabwean past, farming societies utilized mineral resources for their own use and for exchange to local and regional populations, as well as to markets beyond African borders. Successful agriculture was constrained by environmental hazards, principally unpredictable and often inadequate rainfall. Farming communities managed this predicament in various ways. It is likely that some groups used mineral resources found in the vicinity of their settlements to produce materials or items to exchange. The social contexts that defined the nature of mineral production and exchange altered between the mid-first and mid-second millennium AD, as social ranks emerged and political and economic systems became increasingly complex. The thesis is a commentary on how the motivation of society to broaden its resource base, to improve the benefits to households and to society in general, contributed to the emergence of leaders and, ultimately, of an elite class. The focus of the research is on iron and copper production because the author has examined gold production thoroughly in a previous study. Four published papers outline the history of iron and copper production in Zimbabwe. The papers provide case studies of the scale and social context of iron and copper production and exchange.

Paviane (Papio spp.) gelten als wichtiges Modell für die Evolution menschlicher Sozialsysteme. Im Pleistozän hat sich die Gattung Papio ausgehend vom südlichen Afrika über große Teile Afrikas südlich der Sahara sowie Teile der Arabischen Halbinsel ausgebreitet, wobei Guineapaviane (P. papio) die nordwestlichsten und Mantelpaviane (P. hamadryas) die nordöstlichsten Gebiete besiedeln. Im Vergleich zu anderen Pavianarten, deren Ökologie und Sozialsystem seit vielen Jahrzehnten umfangreich untersucht werden, waren zu Guineapavianen bisher nur wenige und zudem widersprüchliche Kenntnisse vorhanden. Dies ist vor allem darauf zurückzuführen, dass von ihnen quantitative Freilanddaten fehlten. Bisher wurden für Paviane zwei Typen von Sozialsystemen beschrieben: Die sogenannten Savannenpaviane (P. anubis, P. cynocephalus und P. ursinus) im südlichen und östlichen Afrika leben in Gruppen mit mehreren Männchen und mehreren Weibchen, wobei Netzwerke nahverwandter Weibchen den sozialen Kern bilden. Mantelpaviane in Nordost-Afrika und Arabien leben dagegen in einer mehrschichtigen Gesellschaft, in denen Ein-Mann-Gruppen die kleinste soziale Einheit darstellen. Ergebnisse früherer Studien an Guineapavianen deuteten darauf hin, dass ihre Gesellschaft auch mehrschichtig ist, ähnlich der von Mantelpavianen. Allerdings wurden Guineapavianmännchen als untereinander außergewöhnlich tolerant beschrieben, was zu der Vermutung führte, dass ihr Sozialsystem innerhalb der Gattung Papio einzigartig ist. Zudem scheinen Männchen verschiedener Pavianarten bezüglich der Konsistenz ihrer Hierarchien, der Häufigkeit von Koalitionsbildung und Infantizidrisiko zu variieren. Diese Beobachtung führte zu der Vermutung, dass im Zusammenhang mit der Ausbreitung der Gattung über den afrikanischen Kontinent entlang eines Süd-Nord-Gradienten eine Evolution hin zu mehr Toleranz und Koalitionensbildung zwischen Männchen stattgefunden hat. Da Guineapaviane an der nordwestlichsten Grenze des Verbreitungsgebietes der Gattung leben, ist hier eine Charakterisierung der Beziehungen zwischen Männchen wichtig, um diese Annahme zu überprüfen. In meiner Dissertation habe ich verschiedene Aspekte des Sozialsystems der Guineapaviane untersucht. Dabei habe ich mich im Besonderen auf Männchen fokussiert, um zu prüfen, ob diese eine ähnlich einflussreiche Rolle in ihrer Gesellschaft einnehmen, wie es bei Mantelpavianmännchen beobachtet wird. Der Fokus auf Männchen erlaubte außerdem den angenommenen Süd-Nord-Gradienten bezüglich der Qualität der Beziehungen zwischen Männchen zu testen. Demnach sollten Guineapavianmännchen als Angehörige einer nördlichen Art im Vergleich zu südlicheren Arten toleranter und kooperativer untereinander sein. Da allgemein angenommen wird, dass Verwandtschaft einen bedeutenden Einfluss auf soziale Interaktionsmuster haben kann (Verwandtenselektion) und auch in sozialen Interaktionen zwischen Mantelpavianmännchen eine wichtige Rolle spielt, habe ich darüber hinaus geprüft, ob genetische Verwandtschaft die räumlichen und sozialen Interaktionsmuster von Guineapavianmännchen erklären kann. Meine Studie ist die erste über Guineapaviane, die überwiegend auf quantitativen Daten zum Sozialverhalten individuell bekannter Tiere in ihrem natürlichen Lebensraum basiert. Zu Beginn des Projektes haben wir nicht habituierte Guineapaviane untersucht, die zu einer Population (Community) von Tieren gehören, deren Streifgebiet sich in der Nähe unserer Feldstation im Niokolo Koba Nationalpark im Senegal befindet. Dazu notierten wir die Größe und Zusammensetzung von Untergruppen an einer Wasserstelle. Es zeigte sich, dass diese Untergruppen je nach Tages- und Jahreszeit sehr variabel in ihrer Größe sowie der Zusammensetzung verschiedener Geschlechts- und Altersklassen waren. Nachdem wir zwei Untergruppen habituiert hatten und die Tiere individuell unterscheiden konnten, wurden anhand räumlicher Daten von mit GPS-Sendern ausgestatteten Tieren sowie mit Hilfe von Verhaltensbeobachtungen soziale Interaktionen und räumliche Assoziationen zwischen adulten Guineapavianmännchen untersucht. Um den Einfluss von Verwandtschaft auf das Sozialsystem zu prüfen, haben wir zudem mehrere adulte Männchen aus der untersuchten Community genotypisiert und genetische Verwandtschaft mit räumlichen Gruppierungs- bzw. sozialen Interaktionsmustern in Bezug gesetzt. Die Ergebnisse meiner Arbeit deuten darauf hin, dass die soziale Organisation der Guineapaviane mindestens drei Ebenen umfasst: Sogenannte Parties bestehen aus drei oder vier adulten Männchen (plus mehrere Weibchen und deren Jungtiere). Innerhalb dieser Ebene fand der Großteil der Interaktionen statt und es wurden enge soziale Bindungen sowie Koalitionen zwischen Männchen beobachtet. Parties scheinen daher die zentrale Einheit der Guineapaviangesellschaft zu bilden. Zwei oder drei Parties formen eine Gang, innerhalb derer die Männchen enger miteinander verwandt waren als Männchen verschiedener Gangs. Allgemein waren soziale Interaktionen auf die Ebene der Gang beschränkt. Die Community stellt die dritte Ebene dar und umfasst alle Individuen, die im gleichen Streifgebiet leben. Im Unterschied zum Mantelpaviansystem scheinen daher Ein-Mann-Gruppen bei Guineapavianen keine Organisationseinheit darzustellen, wobei wir über die Verteilung von Vaterschaften noch keine Aussagen machen können. Die Analyse sozialer Interaktionsmuster in Bezug auf Verwandtschaft ergab, dass Guineapavianmännchen unabhängig von Verwandtschaft starke kooperative Bindungen miteinander eingehen und sehr tolerant sind, sowohl innerhalb als auch zwischen Parties. Männchen scheinen also aktiv zum Zusammenhalt der Gangs beizutragen und spielen daher eine wichtige Rolle in der Erhaltung der mehrschichtigen Gesellschaft in der sie leben. Außerdem interagieren Männchen weitaus häufiger freundlich miteinander als bei anderen Pavianarten. Im Einklang damit zeigt ein Vergleich von Körpermaßen innerhalb der Gattung, dass bei Guineapavianmännchen Merkmale reduziert sind, welche mit intrasexueller Konkurrenz in Verbindung gebracht werden. Die sozialen Beziehungen zwischen Guineapavianmännchen scheinen demnach entscheidend von denen der Männchen anderer Pavianarten abzuweichen. Zusammengefasst belegt meine Studie, dass die Vielfalt von Sozialsystemen bei Pavianen, insbesondere die Variation in der Qualität der Beziehungen unter Männchen, größer ist als bisher angenommen. Die Gattung umfasst demzufolge vermutlich mehr als zwei, und mindestens drei, verschiedene Typen sozialer Systeme. Während die mehrschichtige Organisation der Guineapaviane oberflächlich dem Mantelpaviansystem ähnelt, unterscheiden sich die sozialen Beziehungen zwischen Guineapavianmännchen bezüglich der Intensität und Häufigkeit freundlicher Interaktionen auffallend von denen anderer Mitglieder der Gattung Papio. Diese Beobachtungen passen zu einem angenommenen Süd-Nord-Gradienten hinsichtlich einer erhöhten Häufigkeit von Koalitionsbildungen und einer gesteigerten Toleranz zwischen Männchen und betonen somit einmal mehr, dass es wichtig ist, die Stammesgeschichte und historischen Umweltbedingungen der untersuchten Arten neben derzeitigen Umweltbedingungen in die Untersuchung sozialer Evolution einzubeziehen.

C'est dans le contexte délicat du milieu marin, marqué par l'écroulement des stocks halieutiques et la conservation urgente des espèces de prédateurs marins, que s'inscrit cette étude sur la déprédation (i.e. prélèvement des poissons capturés) par les orques et les cachalots sur la pêche à la palangre dans la ZEE de l'Archipel de Crozet. Le premier objectif a été d'évaluer les conséquences socio-économiques du phénomène. Entre 2003 et 2010 les orques ont interagi avec un total de 43,3% des palangres relevées et les cachalots avec 57,5%, les deux espèces étant présentes simultanément sur 27.8% des palangres (n =5 438). Les orques, seules ou associées aux cachalots ont été estimées prélever 926 ± 76 tonnes de légines sur l'ensemble de la période, représentant un taux de déprédation de 17,7%. Trois facteurs opérationnels ont été identifiés comme faisant varier la déprédation par les orques : i) utilisation de palangres courtes (<5 000 m) en absence d'orques, ii) déplacement du navire sur des distances supérieures à 75 km pour quitter une zone confrontée à la déprédation et changer de zone, iii) utilisation de vitesse de remontée des hameçons à bord supérieures à 50 ham.min-1. Le deuxième objectif de cette étude a été d'évaluer les conséquences démographiques de la déprédation sur la population d'orques de Crozet. Le suivi à long terme des individus a permis de mettre en évidence des réponses différentielles des unités sociales en fonction de leur degré d'interaction avec les pêcheries. En effet, les années 1990 sont d'abord marquées par une sur-mortalité des orques interagissant à des hauts niveaux avec les pêcheries, confirmant l'effet de réponses de type létales de la part des navires braconniers sur les individus. Cette tendance s'inverse à partir de 2003 avec une survie et une reproduction supérieure dans les unités à fort taux d'interaction, suggérant un effet bénéfique de la déprédation. Avec l'augmentation des cas de déprédation dans le monde, la portée de cette étude est globale, d'une part par ses résultats positifs issus d'une collaboration entre pêcheurs, gestionnaires et scientifiques, et d'autre part par la précision des priorités de conservation impliquées.

The Green River region of western Kentucky has been a focus of Archaic period research since 1915. Currently, the region is playing an important role in discussions of Archaic hunter-gatherer cultural complexity. Unfortunately, many of the larger Green River sites contain several archaeological components ranging from the Early to Late Archaic periods. Understanding culture change requires that these multiple components somehow be sorted and addressed individually. Detailed re-analyses of Works Progress Administration (WPA) era artifact collections from two archaeological sites in the Green River region – the Baker (15Mu12) and Chiggerville (15Oh1) shell middens – indicate that these sites are relatively isolated Middle and Late Archaic components, respectively. The relatively unmixed character of Baker and Chiggerville makes these sites excellent candidates for evaluating aspects of complexity during the Archaic. After developing a theoretical basis for evaluating the relative complexity of the social organization of the Baker and Chiggerville site inhabitants on the basis of the material record they left behind, I employ detailed analyses of the bone, antler, and stone tools from these two sites to examine six microscalar aspects of complexity – technological organization, subsistence, specialization, leadership, communication networks, and exchange. These microscalar aspects of complexity all can be linked materially to the archaeological record of the Green River region and can be evaluated as proxies for changes in social organization among the hunter-gatherers who inhabited this region during the Middle and Late Archaic periods. Although the Baker assemblage indicated greater complexity in communication networks and certain proxies for leadership and technological organization, most indicators suggest that the Chiggerville site inhabitants were the more complexly organized group and were in the process of developing a tribal-like social formation. This research, therefore, tentatively supports the hypothesis of increasing complexity through time during the Archaic. However, marked differences in the technological strategies utilized by the Baker and Chiggerville site inhabitants indicates these groups may not have been historically related, thereby violating one of the primary assumptions of the project. If this alternative hypothesis is confirmed through additional research, then no conclusions concerning change through time can be derived from this study.

This research project explores critically the broader social context of the rise of global private policing in Africa, using Nigeria and South Africa to provide an in-depth illustrative and comparative context. Drawing on insights from global security and police research, Foucauldian governmentality studies, and postcolonial perspective in particular, the overarching question addressed in this research is that of whether the apparent rise in global private policing in Africa is occasioned by real need, or it constitutes an imperialist project? In other words, how do we make sense of this development? This research finds that private policing is largely a function of a paradigm shift from a collective human security to an individualistic sense of security through greater emphasis on competition, and private property or gain, in contrast to the collective welfare that predominantly characterized most pre-colonial African societies. Accordingly, global private policing is seen largely as a product of long-term historical undercurrents of colonialism and contemporary forms of Western imperialism, and the leadership crisis rooted in high-profile corruption and economic mismanagement in most parts of Africa; however, their impact on the extent of global private policing differs significantly due to the country-specific internal social, political, and economic, dynamics. This research therefore makes a contribution to the theoretical debates surrounding the growth of global private policing, particularly in the African context; and considers the broader implications for security policies grounded in private versus collective human security.