Cette thèse explore les implications des stratégies hors marché des entreprises en termes de performance. Elle attire notamment l'attention sur la nature paradoxale des stratégies hors-marché ainsi que sur l'importance pour les entreprises de former des portefeuilles spécifiques de ce type de stratégie. En utilisant une approche fondée de la théorie de l'échange social et sur la théorie de la dépendance aux ressources, cette thèse tout d'abord analyse les conditions pour lesquelles les entreprises sont soumises à une extraction de “rente” de la part des politiciens. Elle explore ensuite l'impact de ces liens politiques sur la performance financière des entreprises. Elle distingue notamment différents types de liens politiques qui exposent les entreprises à différents niveaux d'incertitude quant à la continuité de leur échange avec les politiciens, et à différents niveaux de dépendance à leurs ressources à postériori. Enfin, cette thèse examine comment l'engagement communautaire des entreprises pourrait agir comme une stratégie complémentaire aux liens politiques, et comment cette complémentarité peut permettre d’obtenir de meilleurs retours financiers de ces liens politiques. Les hypothèses de cette thèse sont empiriquement testées sur des données longitudinales uniques couvrant différents types de liens entre l’ensemble des politiciens britanniques et toutes les sociétés cotées en bourse au Royaume-Unis, sur une période allant de 2002 à 2011. En prenant une position critique sur la valeur que les entreprises peuvent tirer des stratégies hors-marché, cette thèse contribue à la littérature en management stratégique, en particulier à celle portant sur les stratégies hors-marché des entreprises et leurs implications en termes de performance financière / This dissertation looks into performance implications of firms’ non-market strategies. It draws attention to the double-blade nature of firms’ non-market strategies, as well as the importance for the firm of forming a right portfolio of such strategies. Using insights from social exchange theory and resource dependence theory, it first outlines the conditions under which firms will be subject to rent extraction by politicians. It then looks into the impact of political linkages on firms’ financial performance, differentiating between different types of political linkages; which expose a firm to different levels of uncertainty regarding the continuity of exchange with the politician, and different levels of ex-post dependency on the politician. Finally it investigates how community engagement might act as a complement to firms’ political linkages, and how such complementarity may help to achieve improved financial returns from those political linkages. The predictions of the essays are empirically tested using a unique longitudinal dataset covering various types of linkages between all politicians and all publicly listed companies in the UK, for the period from 2002 to 2011. Taking a critical stand on the value to be drawn from firms’ non-market strategies, this dissertation contributes to strategic management literature, particularly the literature on firms’ non-market strategies and their implications on financial performance

The purpose of this research study was to conduct an exploration of the dating preferences of African American women and U.S. men between the ages of 30-74 years old. This research focuses on the dating preferences and desirability of African American women and if they are influential on the high unmarried rates of African American women. A weighted stratified sampling of 2,800 personal advertisements of African American, Asian, Latino and White men and women from Match.com were collected to conduct the research. The five research hypotheses of this study were tested using frequency and percentage distribution, logistic regression and cross-tabulation models. The findings partially support the hypotheses African American women are more likely to prefer a mate with a bachelor's degree or higher and African American women are more likely to prefer a mate of the same race compared to U.S. women of other races. The findings also suggested non-African American men are less likely to have an interest in dating African American women and non-African American men, who are interested in dating African American women, are less likely to prefer women with a bachelor's degree or higher or a more socially desirable body type.

Si pendant de nombreuses décennies, la créativité a été décrite comme une activité solitaire, en référence à des caractéristiques individuelles possédées par certains individus, il est aujourd’hui établi que les relations jouent un rôle critique dans la création de connaissances (Perry-Smith, 2006). Néanmoins, en dépit de leur importance, les échanges interpersonnels ont reçu relativement peu d’attention en comparaison d’autres ressources utiles au processus créatif. Ce travail doctoral est donc consacré à l’étude du rôle des interactions sociales dans la dynamique du processus créatif. Les cadres théoriques mobilisés sont la théorie de la complexité et la théorie de l’échange social. Notre recherche empirique a été réalisée auprès de chercheurs de l’industrie dont le cœur de la mission est de nature inventive. Cette thèse est composée de trois articles, qui répondent à la question de recherche suivante : Dans quelle mesure et de quelle manière les interactions sociales jouent-elles un rôle dans le processus créatif ? Notre contribution théorique consiste à (1) apporter une définition plurielle de la créativité ; (2) mettre en évidence les différentes ressources sociales mobilisées, qui façonnent un processus créatif dynamique en deux méta-étapes (émergence et amplification des idées) ; (3) décrire trois formes d’échange social, sous-tendues par différentes logiques de réciprocité, qui jouent un rôle important au cours du processus créatif. Cette thèse souligne le rôle des interactions sociales dans le processus créatif et toute l’importance des moments de socialisation dans la vie des organisations qui souhaitent développer la créativité de leurs salariés / Although for many decades creativity has been described as a solitary activity that refers to individual characteristics possessed by certain individuals, today it has been established that relationships play a crucial role in the creation of knowledge (Perry-Smith, 2006). Nevertheless, despite their importance, interpersonal exchanges have received relatively little attention compared to other resources useful to the creative process (Bouty, 2000). This doctoral study is therefore devoted to examining the role of social interactions in the creative process. The theoretical framework draws on literature in the fields of complexity theory and social exchange. The empirical research was carried out among industrial researchers whose main mission is creative in nature. The thesis is composed of three articles, each of which treats a dimension of the overall research question: To what extent and in which ways do social interactions influence the creative process?The research contributes to theory building by (1) providing a plural definition of creativity; (2) highlighting the different social resources that researchers draw on and building a dynamic creative process divided into two meta-stages (emergence of ideas and their amplification); and (3) describing three forms of social exchange, underpinned by different logics of reciprocity that play an important role during the creative process.Overall, this thesis points out the importance of social interactions in the creative process and the full importance of moments of socialization within organizations wishing to develop their employees’ creativity

Resumo: A presente pesquisa, de natureza exploratória, visa a indagar as relações de poder em um contexto de aprendizagem particular: o teletandem. O teletandem é uma forma de trabalho colaborativo em dupla, para fins de aprendizagem de duas línguas estrangeiras, entre dois parceiros falantes competentes de línguas diversas, que aprendem a língua um do outro e se encontram regularmente on-line, realizando sessões nas duas línguas por chat escrito, áudio e vídeo, de forma independente ou integrada em um currículo institucional. Seus principios fundamentais são reciprocidade e autonomia. A pesquisa está embasada na análise qualitativa de quinze entrevistas semi-estruturadas referentes a sete duplas de teletandem e a uma dupla de tandem presencial. Indaga três aspectos das relações de poder neste contexto de aprendizagem: (a) pontos de trânsito do poder; (b) bases do poder; (c) dinâmicas de poder. Considera o poder como propriedade dinâmica de relações e não como propriedade estável de pessoas: adota uma visão relacional, excluindo as visões essencialistas. Dentro destes limites, define o poder na maneira mais ampla possível: fazendo referência a conceitos trans- disciplinares, de diversas ciências sociais, enfoca tanto o poder potencial quanto o exercido, tanto o poder ciente quanto o inconsciente, tanto o poder intencional quanto o não intencional, tanto o poder do agente quanto o poder estrutural, tanto as formas de poder implícitas quanto as explícitas; considera o poder não apenas como negativo, mas também como produtivo. O estudo operacionaliza o poder com referência às três dimensões clássicas, representadas pelos comportamentos, interesses e formas de pensar, e também com referência à definição do poder em termos de limitação de leque de escolhas. Interpreta os dados com referência às teorias acerca das fontes do poder (Psicologia Social)... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The exploratory study in this thesis investigates the relationships of power within a specific learning context: teletandem. Teletandem is a way of collaborating in pairs in order to learn a foreign language - partners who are competent speakers of different languages learn each other‟s language by meeting on-line regularly. This happens in different sessions for each language through written chat, audio and video. Sessions may be either independent or integrated into the institutional curriculum. The fundamental principles of teletandem are reciprocity and autonomy. The study is grounded on the qualitative analysis of fifteen semi- structured interviews of seven teletandem partnerships and of one face-to-face partnership. Their focus lies on three aspects of power relations within this learning context: (a) points of transit of power; (b) foundations of power; and (c) the dynamics of power. Rather than being considered as a stable characteristic of people, power is viewed as a dynamic characteristic of relationships. A relational view is, thus, adopted, excluding essentialist ones. Within these confines, power is defined in its possible broadest sense: by relating it to trans-disciplinary concepts of various social sciences, it focuses on the potential or the exercised power, on the conscious or unconscious power, on the intentional or unintentional power, on the agent‟s or the structural power, on forms of power that are implicit or explicit and, finally, it considers both the negative and productive aspects of power. The study sets the concept of power into action in reference to its three classical dimensions that are represented by behavior, interests and ways of thinking, and also in reference to the definition of power in terms of range limitation of choices. Data interpretation is grounded on theories about the sources of power (Social Psychology), about social... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Astratto: Il presente studio, di natura esplorativa, ha l‟obiettivo di studiare le relazioni di potere in un contesto di apprendimento particolare: il teletandem. Il teletandem è una forma di lavoro collaborativo in coppia, a scopo di apprendimento di due lingue straniere, tra due partner parlanti competenti di lingue diverse, che imparano uno la lingua dell‟altro e si incontrano regolarmente on-line, realizzando sessioni nelle due lingue per chat scritta, audio e video, in modo indipendente o integrato in un curricolo istituzionale. I suoi principi fondamentali sono reciprocit~e autonomia. La ricerca è fondata sull‟analisi qualitativa di quindici interviste semistrutturate riferite a sette coppie di teletandem e a una coppia di tandem in presenza. Studia tre aspetti delle relazioni di potere in questo contesto di apprendimento: (a) punti di transito del podere; (b) basi del potere; (c) dinamiche di potere. Considera il potere come proprietà dinamica di relazioni e non come proprietà stabile di persone; adotta una visione relazionale, escludendo le visioni essenzialiste. Entro questi limiti, define il potere nel modo più ampio possibile: facendo riferimento a concetti transdisciplinari, di diverse scienze sociali, focalizza tanto il potere potenziale quanto quello esercitato, tanto il potere cosciente quanto quello incosciente, tanto il potere intenzionale quanto quello non intenzionale, tanto il potere dell‟agente quanto il potere strutturale, tanto le forme implicite quanto le esplicite; considera il potere non solo come negativo ma anche come produttivo. La presente ricerca operazionalizza il potere con riferimento alle tre dimensioni classiche, rappresentate da comportamenti, interessi e modi di pensare, e anche con riferimento alla definizione di potere in termini di limitazione di ambito di scelte. Interpreta i dati con riferimento alle teorie sulle fonti del potere... (Riassunto completo, accesso elettronico clicca Qui Sotto) / Orientador: João Antonio Telles / Coorientador: Paolo E. Balboni / Banca: Solange Aranha / Banca: Maximina Freire / Banca: Graziano Serragiotto / Doutor

Mentoring is an effective tool for the professional development of novice teachers (Eby & Lockwood 2005; Kram, 1985; Stanulis & Ames, 2009). Mentors to preservice teachers have conveyed that they receive benefits and face barriers when mentoring (Ambrosetti, 2014; Burk & Eby, 2010; Hobson, Ashby, Malderez, & Tomlinson, 2009; Iancu-Haddad & Oplatka, 2009). Graduate students who serve as mentors to undergraduates have also reported advantages and drawbacks to being a mentor (Conway, Eros, Pellegrino, Kras, Gale, & Campbell, 2009; Reddick, Griffin, & Cherwitz, 2011). This study examined the perceived benefits and barriers for graduate students serving as mentors to undergraduate, preservice teachers. It also considered the affect that graduate school had on a teacher’s decision to engage in a mentoring relationship. The participants were all PK-12 teachers who were also graduate students in the College of Education and Human Services (COEHS) at the University of North Florida (UNF). The data for this qualitative case study was collected through semi-structured interviews. Findings yielded three themes (helps me, helps others, helps profession) which summarized the perceived benefits and barriers for graduate students mentoring preservice teachers. The results were connected to the Social Exchange Theory and it was determined that some graduate students will weigh rewards and costs before deciding to mentor, while others will lean more towards rewards or costs regardless. This study may have implications for undergraduate and graduate curriculum, mentor matching, and for mentor training.

L’objectif de cette recherche est d’étudier la relation entre les nouvelles carrières et l’engagement organisationnel. La gestion des carrières et l’engagement organisationnel sont importants, à la fois, pour les individus que pour les organisations. Toutefois, les carrières ne sont plus bâties au sein d’une même organisation, elles deviennent des carrières sans frontières. Nous cherchons à comprendre et analyser la nature de l’engagement des ingénieurs consultants en SSII. Les données qualitatives ont été collectées sur le marché de l’emploi français, 47 interviews ont été mené, dans le secteur des SSII. Les résultats montrent que les ingénieurs consultants développent aussi bien un engagement envers la SSII qu’envers l’entreprise cliente. Ils développent aussi un engagement professionnel, un engagement envers l’équipe et un engagement envers le leader. Il s’agit don, d’un engagement multi-cibles. Simplement les carrières de ces ingénieurs ne sont pas nécessairement nomades. Dans ce nouveau contexte, les carrières ne sont plus bâties au sein d’une même organisation, elles deviennent des carrières sans frontières.Elles sont caractérisées par des parcours singuliers et idiosyncrasiques ; des mobilités inter organisationnelles outre celles intra organisationnelles ; une vision plus élargie de la compétence ; une promesse d’employabilité au lieu de la promesse de carrière à vie et la monté de la dimension subjective de la réussite de carrière. D’autre part, au-delà des postulats selon lesquels la question d’implication organisationnelle est devenue une aberration, une telle attitude est encore importante, elle devient même plus cruciale qu’elle l’était auparavant. Suite au désengagement des entreprises et à la responsabilisation des individus en matière de gestion de leurs carrières, la question d’implication devient plus capitale. De ce fait, l’objectif de notre recherche est d’étudier l’impact des carrières individuelles sur l’engagement organisationnel. / The purpose of this paper is to study the relationship between new careers and organizational commitment. Managing careers and organizational commitment are typically important for individuals as organizations. However, careers are no longer bounded in one organization, instead, they become boundaryless. We aim to understand and analyze the nature of commitment of IT professional, in the SSIIs in France.Surveys were collected from French labor market; 47 semi-structured interviews were among French persons working for SSII.The findings reveal that SSII engineers develop commitment to the agency: SSII and to the client. They also develop professional commitment, team commitment and Leader commitment. However, their careers are not necessary boundaryless, traditional careers still exist among these professionals on IT.

This research investigates the impact of the interaction between the consumer and mobile service provider on the adoption of advanced mobile commerce services by existing consumers of mobile technology. These factors include: 1) Perceived Relationship Quality (PRQ), which is the consumer’s evaluation of the quality of his/her relationship with the mobile service provider, and 2) Perceived Value of the Adoption Incentive (PVI), which is the consumer’s evaluation of the value of incentives that are offered by the service provider to entice him/her to adopt the mobile service. The influence of these factors on consumer attitudes and intentions towards adopting mobile commerce services is studied and compared with three other well-known adoption factors including perceived usefulness, ease of use and the subjective norm. / This study was undertaken in three parts. Firstly, a conceptual study was conducted to investigate and analyse the existing literature on consumer adoption of mobile commerce services. This phase started with a general review of the existing studies using a novel model: the Entities-Interactions Framework, EIF. The EIF explains adoption behaviour in terms of interactions between the consumer and the other entities including the mobile service, the service provider and the social system. This framework was used to analyse the extent to which important adoption factors have been covered by past research and therefore identify the research questions. The conceptual study resulted in the development of a research model and relevant hypotheses. / Secondly, a large-scale questionnaire survey was conducted to test the research model and the proposed hypotheses. This part of the research helped give a broad picture of the influence of consumer-service provider factors on consumer adoption of mobile commerce services. Thirdly, face-to-face interviews with mobile phones users were conducted in order to validate the survey results and provide an understanding of the mechanisms that control the impact of the investigated factors. The research found that PRQ and PVI have an important influence on the attitude and intention of existing mobile phone users towards accepting and using advanced mobile commerce services. Furthermore, the research found that these newly introduced factors are more influential on consumer adoption perceptions than other well-established factors. / The study enriches our understanding of technology adoption by individuals because it explains why an existing user of a technology, such as mobile technology, will or will not adopt advanced versions of that technology. The findings affirm that in the context of communication technologies, which are interactive by nature, understanding the interaction between consumers and service providers is a key to understanding the progressive adoption by consumers of advanced forms of these technologies. The thesis provides practitioners (particularly mobile service providers) with a better understanding of the impact and implication of their interaction with consumers on consumers’ acceptance and use of mobile services. The study emphasises the importance of incorporating this understanding throughout the mobile service provision process, starting from the conceptualisation of the service to the actual provision of the service to the market. The study also offers a novel comprehension of how to view each mobile service offer as a consequence of the previous offer and a precedent of the next in order to enhance consumer adoption of mobile service in the short and long runs.

Worldwide tourism has become one of the largest and fastest growing industries. Specifically in the South African context, this growth has been confirmed in recent statistics. However, the growth in the tourism industry does not occur without challenges. It brings both benefits and costs to the residents of a host community, consequently generating both positive and negative tourism impacts. Further, it is recognised that once a community becomes a tourism destination, the lives of the residents are influenced by that particular development; thus effecting their Quality of Life (QoL). Only minimal research has, however, been conducted to determine the influence of the perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL, especially in the South African context. A number of theoretical frameworks have been developed in tourism to signify how the perception of or reactions towards tourism of residents in a host community are influenced at any particular stage of development. Pertaining to QoL, various theoretical models have also been created to describe the functioning of the construct. Although theoretical frameworks have been developed that are distinct to tourism and QoL; to date an integrated approach does not exist that explores the influence of tourism on residents’ QoL. In addition to the lack of an integrated approach in literature, the permanency of tourism products too have not yet been examined in literature. Further, permanency has not been examined in order to determine the influence of tourism impacts on residents’ QoL in selected towns, one being a permanent tourism product (PTP) and the other a nonpermanent tourism product (N-PTP). From the above, it can be seen that three theoretical and practical issues exist: (1) only a modest amount of research has been done to determine the influence of tourism impacts on residents’ QoL; (2) an integrated approach does not exist signifying the relationship between tourism impacts and QoL and; (3) permanency as a differentiation factor has not been investigated in host communities. By addressing these issues, a significant contribution will be made to literature, together with the ensuing practical contributions. Therefore, the main goal of the study was to develop a model to indicate the influence of perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL in selected towns; these having specific differentiation made between a PTP and N-PTP. In order to achieve the goal of the study, five objectives were formulated: The first objective was to analyse theoretical frameworks of tourism and QoL and to identify a particular theoretical framework for the study. Specifically, the Social Exchange Theory (SET) was selected from the theoretical frameworks of tourism, while the Bottom-up Spillover theory was designated as it is peculiar to QoL frameworks. Therefore, the derived theoretical framework indicated that an ‘exchange’ process occurs between tourism development and the residents of the host community. More specifically, social exchange arises between the perceived impacts of tourism and life domains in order to establish the QoL of residents in host communities. The second objective was to analyse tourism both as an industry and product in a host community through a review of existing literature. From the literature review, it can be seen that tourism is a growing industry and product, not only internationally but also in the South African context. Permanency as a characteristic was explored comprehensively to define a tourism product while maintaining the differentiation between a PTP and N-PTP. Residents of a host community are noted as important roleplayers in the tourism industry as tourism impacts affect them in PTP and in N-PTP. This importance is emphasised as residents of a host community: (1) influence the tourism experience; (2) determine the attractiveness of a destination and; (3) control the sustainability of tourism in a host community. The third objective was to analyse QoL and its relation to the residents of a host community, once more, through a literature review. From the review, it was observed that QoL has different definitions and views, some more intricate than others. For the purpose of the study, it was determined that QoL can be described appropriately through the Bottom-up Spillover theory. Therefore, QoL is determined through the collaboration of various life domains that, further, may be either objective or subjective in nature. When examining the relationship between tourism development and QoL, it was established that tourism, through tourism products, produces effects that will influence various life domains, consequently determining the QoL of residents in a host community. As with tourism impacts, the QoL of the host community’s residents will subsequently: (1) influence the tourism experience; (2) determine the attractiveness of a destination and; (3) ensure the sustainability of tourism in a community. The fourth objective was to analyse the influence of the economic, environmental, social and cultural impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL and to differentiate between a PTP and N-PTP by using an empirical study. Having in mind that the main goal of the study was to develop a model, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling were conducted on the data. The models, constructed separately for tourism impacts and QoL, were subsequently integrated to determine the influence of the perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL. The model with good model fit statistics and supportive of underlying theory was thereafter accepted for further analysis in order to attain comprehensively the main goal of the study. Thereafter, model development tested permanency of tourism products by specifically determining the influence of perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL in selected towns (PTP and N-PTP). From the latter exercise, no practically significant differences were found between a PTP and N-PTP. Therefore, the model constructed as Stage 3 was accepted as the final model of the study and was given the title of Root’s model of Community TourQoL (CTQ). Specifically, the model signified that positive economic, environmental, social and cultural impacts influence residents’ QoL, while negative environmental and social impacts do not influence residents’ QoL in host community. Furthermore, the model showed that no differences were found between a PTP and N-PTP regarding the influence of perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL. The fifth and final objective was to draw conclusions, indicate contributions, formulate recommendations and present limitations peculiar to the study. The greatest significance of the study is seen in the practical contributions of the study, specifically, the development of Root’s model of Community TourQoL (CTQ). Community and tourism planners and/management can implement the model in both PTP and N-PTP to enhance the positive impacts of tourism; while minimising negative impacts, in order to improve residents’ QoL. / Thesis (PhD (Tourism Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

Worldwide tourism has become one of the largest and fastest growing industries. Specifically in the South African context, this growth has been confirmed in recent statistics. However, the growth in the tourism industry does not occur without challenges. It brings both benefits and costs to the residents of a host community, consequently generating both positive and negative tourism impacts. Further, it is recognised that once a community becomes a tourism destination, the lives of the residents are influenced by that particular development; thus effecting their Quality of Life (QoL). Only minimal research has, however, been conducted to determine the influence of the perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL, especially in the South African context. A number of theoretical frameworks have been developed in tourism to signify how the perception of or reactions towards tourism of residents in a host community are influenced at any particular stage of development. Pertaining to QoL, various theoretical models have also been created to describe the functioning of the construct. Although theoretical frameworks have been developed that are distinct to tourism and QoL; to date an integrated approach does not exist that explores the influence of tourism on residents’ QoL. In addition to the lack of an integrated approach in literature, the permanency of tourism products too have not yet been examined in literature. Further, permanency has not been examined in order to determine the influence of tourism impacts on residents’ QoL in selected towns, one being a permanent tourism product (PTP) and the other a nonpermanent tourism product (N-PTP). From the above, it can be seen that three theoretical and practical issues exist: (1) only a modest amount of research has been done to determine the influence of tourism impacts on residents’ QoL; (2) an integrated approach does not exist signifying the relationship between tourism impacts and QoL and; (3) permanency as a differentiation factor has not been investigated in host communities. By addressing these issues, a significant contribution will be made to literature, together with the ensuing practical contributions. Therefore, the main goal of the study was to develop a model to indicate the influence of perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL in selected towns; these having specific differentiation made between a PTP and N-PTP. In order to achieve the goal of the study, five objectives were formulated: The first objective was to analyse theoretical frameworks of tourism and QoL and to identify a particular theoretical framework for the study. Specifically, the Social Exchange Theory (SET) was selected from the theoretical frameworks of tourism, while the Bottom-up Spillover theory was designated as it is peculiar to QoL frameworks. Therefore, the derived theoretical framework indicated that an ‘exchange’ process occurs between tourism development and the residents of the host community. More specifically, social exchange arises between the perceived impacts of tourism and life domains in order to establish the QoL of residents in host communities. The second objective was to analyse tourism both as an industry and product in a host community through a review of existing literature. From the literature review, it can be seen that tourism is a growing industry and product, not only internationally but also in the South African context. Permanency as a characteristic was explored comprehensively to define a tourism product while maintaining the differentiation between a PTP and N-PTP. Residents of a host community are noted as important roleplayers in the tourism industry as tourism impacts affect them in PTP and in N-PTP. This importance is emphasised as residents of a host community: (1) influence the tourism experience; (2) determine the attractiveness of a destination and; (3) control the sustainability of tourism in a host community. The third objective was to analyse QoL and its relation to the residents of a host community, once more, through a literature review. From the review, it was observed that QoL has different definitions and views, some more intricate than others. For the purpose of the study, it was determined that QoL can be described appropriately through the Bottom-up Spillover theory. Therefore, QoL is determined through the collaboration of various life domains that, further, may be either objective or subjective in nature. When examining the relationship between tourism development and QoL, it was established that tourism, through tourism products, produces effects that will influence various life domains, consequently determining the QoL of residents in a host community. As with tourism impacts, the QoL of the host community’s residents will subsequently: (1) influence the tourism experience; (2) determine the attractiveness of a destination and; (3) ensure the sustainability of tourism in a community. The fourth objective was to analyse the influence of the economic, environmental, social and cultural impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL and to differentiate between a PTP and N-PTP by using an empirical study. Having in mind that the main goal of the study was to develop a model, Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Structural Equation Modelling were conducted on the data. The models, constructed separately for tourism impacts and QoL, were subsequently integrated to determine the influence of the perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL. The model with good model fit statistics and supportive of underlying theory was thereafter accepted for further analysis in order to attain comprehensively the main goal of the study. Thereafter, model development tested permanency of tourism products by specifically determining the influence of perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL in selected towns (PTP and N-PTP). From the latter exercise, no practically significant differences were found between a PTP and N-PTP. Therefore, the model constructed as Stage 3 was accepted as the final model of the study and was given the title of Root’s model of Community TourQoL (CTQ). Specifically, the model signified that positive economic, environmental, social and cultural impacts influence residents’ QoL, while negative environmental and social impacts do not influence residents’ QoL in host community. Furthermore, the model showed that no differences were found between a PTP and N-PTP regarding the influence of perceived impacts of tourism on residents’ QoL. The fifth and final objective was to draw conclusions, indicate contributions, formulate recommendations and present limitations peculiar to the study. The greatest significance of the study is seen in the practical contributions of the study, specifically, the development of Root’s model of Community TourQoL (CTQ). Community and tourism planners and/management can implement the model in both PTP and N-PTP to enhance the positive impacts of tourism; while minimising negative impacts, in order to improve residents’ QoL. / Thesis (PhD (Tourism Management))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

L’énergie apparaît comme un problème public majeur, dans la résolution duquel les pouvoirs publics s’engagent régulièrement. Mais, à l’autre bout de cette chaîne, comment les individus ordinaires s’approprient-ils le problème public de l’énergie ? Dans les mesures classiques de l’opinion publique, les questions énergétiques et environnementales sont souvent loin d’occuper les premières places dans la hiérarchie des priorités. Or, pour réduire la pression engendrée par nos modes de consommation sur les écosystèmes, le changement des comportements et des attitudes de consommation est présenté comme un levier majeur. La question énergétique est-elle alors un enjeu politique pour tous mais un problème pour personne ? Pour répondre à cette question nous nous interrogeons sur la fabrique des opinions ordinaires et nous proposons de considérer ces dernières comme des énoncés discursifs testés dans des situations sociales plus ou moins complexes, conflictuelles et publiques. En amont, bon nombre d'acteurs ayant accès à l'espace public contribue à orienter et promouvoir certaines injonctions normatives pour définir la « bonne » pratique. Mais ces injonctions ne sont ni stables, ni homogènes : elles font l'objet de controverses et donnent lieu à des reformulations discursives parfois dissonantes. Entre enjeux technologiques, économiques, écologiques, sociétaux, etc. l’énergie comme problème public est alors soumise à un cadrage par des ordres normatifs dynamiques définissant certaines déviances et se voit proposer des solutions reconnues comme légitimes sous l’effet, entre autres, de l’action publique. Mais, ce niveau de description fait l’économie de la parole des citoyens « ordinaires », couvrant ainsi un présupposé instrumental commun qui estime que les citoyens dotés de la « bonne » information agissent « correctement ». Ce présupposé est contestable. Certes, une majorité écrasante d’enquêtés souligne son accord de principe aux économies d’énergie, témoignant ainsi de sa connaissance – même partielle – de l’existence d’un « problème public de l’énergie » et d’un engagement – même limité – aux injonctions à la modération en termes de consommation énergétique. Mais cet accord tacite se heurte à d’autres injonctions, à la compétition des problèmes, des pratiques sociales et à la mise en œuvre pratique des solutions. Ni surcompétents, ni incompétents, les citoyens ordinaires construisent donc du sens à travers des ordres normatifs concurrentiels et cherchent à le rendre compatible avec leurs modes de vie. Pour ce faire, la confrontation de leurs opinions et l’ajustement collectif de leurs représentations sont nécessaires. En reprenant certaines notions du pragmatisme, nous interrogeons la manière dont les perceptions du problème de l’énergie varient selon les scènes sociales où il est discuté, leur publicité ou encore le degré de conflictualité qu’il génère, et nous montrons que des communautés locales interprétatives d’un problème – et éventuellement de solutions – peuvent émerger et contribuer à alimenter la légitimité du problème dans l’espace public. Par ce biais, nous soulignons qu’il existe des espaces adossés au politique mais qui ne répondent pas toujours aux critères de conflictualisation et montée en généralité. Ces espaces illustrent l’intérêt de prendre en compte l’ambivalence et la labilité des opinions dans l’appropriation d’un problème public et la normalisation de ses solutions. / Energy appears to be a major public problem, in which the public authorities regularly commit. But at the other end of this chain, how do ordinary individuals appropriate the public problem of energy? In the classical measures of public opinion, energy and environmental issues are often far from the top of the hierarchy of priorities. However, to reduce the pressure generated by our consumption patterns on ecosystems, the change in consumer behavior and attitudes is presented as a major lever. Is the energy issue then a political issue for all but a problem for no one? In order to answer this question, we question the fabric of ordinary opinions and propose to consider them as discursive statements tested in more or less complex, conflicting and public social situations.Upstream, many actors with access to public space help to guide and promote certain normative injunctions to define "good" practice. But these injunctions are neither stable nor homogeneous: they are the subject of controversies and give rise to discursive reformulations, sometimes dissonant. Between technological, economic, ecological, societal, etc. energy as a public problem is then subjected to a framing by dynamic normative orders defining certain deviations and is offered solutions recognized as legitimate under the influence of, inter alia, public action.But this level of description does not take "ordinary" citizens into account, and covers a common instrumental presupposition that citizens with "good" information act "correctly". This presupposition is questionable. Admittedly, an overwhelming majority of respondents stressed their agreement in principle to energy savings, thus demonstrating their knowledge - even partial - of the existence of a "public energy problem" and a commitment - even limited - to injunctions to moderate their energy consumption. But this tacit agreement comes up against other injunctions, competition between problems, social practices and the practical implementation of solutions.Neither overcompetent nor incompetent, ordinary citizens construct meaning through competitive normative norms and seek to make it compatible with their lifestyles. To do this, the confrontation of their opinions and the collective adjustment of their representations are necessary. By taking up some of the notions of pragmatism, we examine how the perceptions of the energy problem vary according to the social scenes in which it is discussed, their publicity or the degree of conflict that they generate, and we show that local communities with a common interpretation of a problem - and possibly solutions - can emerge and help fuel the legitimacy of the problem in public space. In this way, we emphasize that there are more or less public spaces but which do not always meet the criteria of conflictualization and rise in generality. These spaces illustrate the importance of taking into account the ambivalence and the lability of opinions in the appropriation of a public problem and the standardization of its solutions.