This thesis presents a critical analysis of the historical roles assigned to the prosecutors of Socrates by modern historians. Ancient sources relating to the trial and the principles involved, and modern renditions, especially those of John Burnet and A. E. Taylor, originators of the theory that the trial of Socrates was politically motivated, are critically analyzed and examined. The thesis concludes that the political motive theory is not supported by the evidence on which it relies.

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Thesis advisor: Robert C. Bartlett / This dissertation seeks to understand Aristophanes’ critique of philosophic wisdom in three of his comedies: Clouds (423 BC), Women at the Thesmophoria (411 BC) and Frogs (405 BC). Written over the politically turbulent period of the Peloponnesian war (434-404 BC), these comedies navigate a generational conflict between conservative defenders of Athens’s customs, laws and gods and the younger generation influenced by the atheistic teachings of the sophists. This dissertation seeks to contribute to our understanding of Aristophanes’ critique by comparing his presentation of Socrates with that of Euripides, a tragedian who ingenuously fuses poetry with the new sophistic teaching. The first chapter considers Aristophanes’ representation of Socrates in Clouds as the sophist par excellence who replaces the gods of the city with natural causes, and respect for the city’s laws with rhetoric. Although the comedy looks like a conservative defense of traditional morality against the corrupting effects of philosophic novelty, the grounds of Aristophanes’ attack on Socrates are anything but clear. As Aristophanes’ depiction of the Clouds (strange airy deities worshipped by poets and sophists alike) shows, Socrates’ destruction at the end of the play occurs not because what Socrates teaches is false, but because his political isolation blinds him to the city’s demands and makes him vulnerable to persecution. Socrates’ failure in Clouds establishes the basis for considering Euripides’ (partially) successful confrontation with the city in Women at the Thesmophoria. The second chapter assesses the extent to which this hybrid of tragedian and sophist can be harmonized with the needs of the city without compromising his own integrity as a poet whose power lies in his psychologically accurate depictions of human nature. Aristophanes thus points to the superiority of Euripides the poet over Socrates the philosopher, at the same time as he exposes Euripides’ limitations. In Frogs, Aristophanes raises the stakes by pitting Euripides against another giant of tragedy, Aeschylus, in the Thunderdome of Hades with the god of the theatre, Dionysus, as judge. The comedy thus compares the two greatest poetic representatives of the generational conflict between conservative and sophist, old and new, common good and individual good, deciding at the last second in favor of Aeschylus. The chapter argues that Euripides fails because he cannot provide a sufficient political defense of his tragedy at the moment in which Athens faces imminent destruction at the hands of the Spartans. The conclusion reflects on Aristophanes’ implicit claim to teach justice and the good through comedy’s capacity to mediate between the demands of the city, on the one hand, and the insights on human nature afforded by philosophy, on the other. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Political Science.

Nietzsche's view of Socrates has been studied at length by a number of scholars, and yet the accounts resulting from these studies, even when descriptively correct, have not given a full explanation of the relationship between the two philosophers. More specifically, they fail to clarify the proper connection between Nietzsche and Socrates in terms of fundamental aspects of Nietzsche's thought, especially in terms of his view of reason. The most influential interpretation of Nietzsche's relationship to Socrates comes from Kaufmann, who claims that Nietzsche's view of Socrates is one of pure admiration. More recently, scholars such as Nehamas have corrected Kaufmann's flawed interpretation. Although Nehamas has properly understood Nietzsche's view of Socrates to be one of ambivalence, his interpretation is wanting in that it provides only a partial explanation of this ambivalence. My argument will take the following form. I will first establish in Chapters 2-5 (A) Nietzsche's ambivalence toward Socrates. Then, independently of that discussion, I will reveal in Chapter 6 (B) his ambivalence toward reason. The strict parallelism between these two manifestations of ambivalence in Nietzsche will permit me to make the claim that (B) explains (A). By this analysis I will demonstrate that Nietzsche is not only positive and negative in his assessments of both Socrates and reason, but that he is ambivalent to both for the same reasons. More specifically, for Nietzsche, Socrates' emphasis upon dialectical reason as the one and only medium for attaining eudaimonia is ultimately nihilistic. It stands as a singular example of the variety of nihilistic practices that emphasize one perspective over all others; and to deny perspective, is, for Nietzsche, to deny life itself. Thus Nietzsche understands such practices, among which he includes Christianity, ethical objectivism, and Plato's metaphysics, as a misuse of reason. However, the appropriate use of reason involves experimenting with other modes of expression such as aphorisms, the performing arts, and poetry, which grant the individual as much moral and intellectual freedom as necessary so that they may affirm life in the manner they find most satisfying and rewarding. Hence, it is only through a thorough investigation of Nietzsche's view of reason that his ambivalence toward Socrates can be fully understood, namely, as a manifestation of his ambivalence to reason. / Master of Arts

[pt] O presente estudo tem como objetivo apresentar alguns pontos que foram importantes para o processo de construção dramática da personagem de Sócrates nos diálogos de Platão. Sabemos, por intermédio de sua vasta obra, que o filósofo expressou o seu pensamento através de diálogos. Esse gênero literário foi influenciado por diversas expressões da cultura helênica, e pela poesia épica que em geral narra a trajetória de algum grande herói. No drama filosófico construído por Platão, a personagem de Sócrates desempenha esse papel dentro de uma boa parte de seus diálogos. Ele é considerado, pela maioria dos especialistas em Platão, como o seu principal porta voz. E a partir disso, surge a necessidade de se entender os motivos pelos quais levaram o filósofo escolher esse meio de expressão literário para desenvolver a sua dramaturgia filosófica em torno de uma das figuras mais enigmáticas da Filosofia antiga. / [en] The present study aims to present some points that were important to the building process of the dramatic character of Socrates in Plato s dialogues. We know, through his vast work, that the philosopher expressed his thoughts through dialogue. This literary genre was influenced by various expressions of Hellenic culture, and by the epic poetry that usually tells the story of some great hero. In the philosophical drama constructed by Plato, Socrates’ character plays this role within a good part of his dialogues. He is considered, by most experts in Plato, as its primary spokesperson. And from this arises the need to understand the reasons which led the philosopher to choose this means of literary expression to develop the philosophical drama around one of the most enigmatic figures of ancient philosophy.

Magistrinis darbas susideda iš dviejų dalių. Pirmoje dalyje pateikiama Socrates/Comenius 1 projektų 1998-2006 metais vykdytų Lietuvoje kiekybinė ir tematinė apžvalga. Antroje dalyje pristatomas empirinis projekto dalyvių – mokytojų – tyrimas, kuriuo buvo siekiama nustatyti mokytojų požiūrį į dalyvavimo projekte poveikį mokytojų profesiniam tobulėjimui. Darbo pabaigoje pateikiamos tyrimo išvados bei rekomendacijos. Tyrimo tikslas – ištirti mokytojų požiūrį į Socrates/Comenius 1 projektų poveikį jų profesiniam tobulėjimui. Projekto dalyvių - mokytojų - empirinis tyrimas buvo atliekamas anketinės apklausos metodu. Gauta 110 tinkamų analizuoti anketų. Apibendrinus tyrimo rezultatus daroma išvada, kad dalyvavimas projektuose turėjo didelės įtakos mokytojų profesiniam tobulėjimui. Dalyvavimas projekte praturtino tiek pačius mokytojus, tiek ir mokinius, ką minėjo dauguma apklaustųjų. Dauguma mokytojų patobulino savo užsienio kalbų žinias, vadybinius gebėjimus, praplėtė tarpkultūrinį pažinimą, projekto metu surinktą medžiagą naudojo pamokų metu. Taip pat darbe buvo siekiama atskleisti, su kokiomis problemos dažniausiai susidūrė projektų vykdytojai, bei remiantis dalyvių patirtimi ir literatūros šaltiniuose surinkta informacija, pateikti rekomendacijas esamiems ir būsimiems tarptautinių mokyklų bendradarbiavimo projektų vykdytojams. / This work consists from two main tasks. In first part of it is presented quantitative and thematic review for Socrates/Comenius 1 projects in Lithuania in the year 1998-2006. In second part you can find the empirical research of participants of project – teachers, which was aimed to identify teacher’s point of view to an influence of participating in project to their professional development. And in the end are presented conclusions and recommendations. The subject of this work is to explore the approach of teachers to the influence of Socrates/Comenius 1 projects to their professional development. This empirical research of project participants – teachers was organised on the basic of questionnaires. We have got 110 questionnaires good for analyses. With conclusion of this work we can say, that participating in the projects had strong influence for teacher’s professional development. Work in the project made richer teachers as well as students – many participants mentioned that. Majority of teachers improved their knowledge of foreign languages, abilities of using IT as well as management abilities extended their intercultural knowledge, products of projects they used in lessons. I also wanted to show, what kind of problems had participants of projects, and on the strength of their experience and information of literature sources, to give recommendations for present and future participants of international schools cooperation projects.

[pt] O presente estudo tem como foco investigar os sonhos (para os quais os gregos empregavam três diferentes palavras: oneiros/oneiron, onar e enupnion) e suas incursões nos diálogos de Platão. Dentre os aproximadamente vinte e oito diálogos raramente considerados apócrifos, em dezoito deles encontramos numerosas incidências à irrupção do sono e ao processo do despertar, à formação dos sonhos, bem como ao problema da diferenciação entre sonho e vigília, motivo pelo qual consideramo-las preocupações filosóficas caras a Platão. Embora esta tese tenha como objetivo geral apresentar um panorama das menções aos sonhos ao longo do corpus platônico, nossa investigação concentra-se sobretudo em seis diálogos e suas respectivas tematizações dos sonhos: Teeteto, Cármides, República, Apologia, Críton e Fédon. O nosso objetivo específico, por sua vez, consiste em compreender a doutrina do filósofo a partir destas incursões, visto que, como veremos, se, por um lado, mostrar-se-á evidente a dificuldade de encontrar um critério capaz de discernir ilusão e realidade, sonho e vigília, à hipótese platônica das formas imutáveis será atribuído importante papel nesta distinção. Em paralelo, encontramos nos dramas filosóficos alguns relatos de sonhos que Sócrates sonhara, os quais, com a ajuda do próprio sonhador, somos levados a investigar. Junto a isso, observamos ainda a influência das concepções mitológicas homérica e hesiódica dos sonhos sobre a concepção platônica deles, bem como a sua própria reinvenção filosófica. / [en] The present study focuses on investigating dreams (for which the Greeks used three different words: oneiros/oneiron, onar and enupnion) and their incursions into Plato s dialogues. Of the approximately twenty-eight dialogues rarely considered apocryphal, in eighteen of them we find many incidences to the irruption of sleep and the process of awakening, to the formation of dreams, as well as to the problem of the differentiation between dream and wake, which is the reason why we consider them philosophical concerns dear to Plato. Although the general objective of this thesis is to propose an overview of the mentioning of dreams throughout the Platonic corpus, our investigation focuses mainly on six dialogues and their respective thematizations of dreams: Theaetetus, Carmides, Republic, Apology, Crito and Phaedo. Our specific aim is to understand the philosopher s doctrine through these incursions, since, as we shall see, if, on the one hand, it shall be made evident the difficulty of finding a criteria capable of discerning illusion and reality, dream and wake, to the Platonic hypothesis of immutable forms an important role in this distinction shall also be assigned. In parallel, we find in these philosophical dramas various accounts of dreams that Socrates had dreamed, which, with the help of the dreamer himself, we are led to investigate. In conjunction with that, we also observe the influence of the Homeric and Hesiodic mythological conceptions of dreams on the Platonic conception of them, as well as his own philosophical reinvention.

Thesis advisor: Robert C. Bartlett / This dissertation is an attempt to understand and assess the presuppositions and methods of classical political science. In the first of its two parts, the dissertation examines the meaning of the traditional view, held by authorities as far removed from one another as Cicero and Hobbes, that Socrates was the founder of political philosophy. It does so by considering the intellectual autobiography that Socrates famously delivers in Plato's Phaedo. Socrates turned to the study of pre-scientific, common-sense moral and political opinions only after he had rejected, as a very young man, both the materialist and the teleological natural science of his philosophic predecessors. It is the task of the dissertation's first part to show how the general revolution in scientific thought presented in the Phaedo, a revolution known as "the Socratic turn," laid the theoretical groundwork for classical political philosophy's characteristic focus on pre-scientific, common-sense moral distinctions. After examining "the Socratic turn," the dissertation then outlines in its second part the approach to the study of politics that Aristotle advanced on the basis of it. In particular, Aristotle's statements on the method of political science in book I of the Ethics are shown to rely on the basic insights obtained through "the turn." / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2014. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Political Science.

Esta dissertação tem dois objetivos principais: (1) efetuar um estudo introdutório, concentrando-se sobretudo no argumento do diálogo que se encontra em 49a-c e (2) apresentar uma tradução do Críton de Platão em português a partir do original em grego. Quanto à tradução, esta está entremeada de notas e comentários que visam: (a) explicar o meu entendimento acerca das funções exercidas pelas partículas, que são abundantes no texto em grego; (b) esclarecer a sintaxe dos trechos que considerei mais complexos; (c) fundamentar algumas das opções que adotei na tradução; (d) explicar algumas referências a nomes, lugares e trechos de obras citados no texto original; e, finalmente, (e) evidenciar alguns pontos do Críton que não são tratados diretamente nesta dissertação, mas que são objetos de estudo e discussão entre os comentadores de Platão. Quanto ao trecho 49a-c, Sócrates propõe nele um princípio que limita a retaliação em resposta a uma injustiça qualquer sofrida. O estudo que me propus a fazer consiste em (a) evidenciar algumas ambigüidades presentes na formulação de tal princípio e em (b) uma análise das interpretações de três importantes comentadores de Platão sobre este tema. / This dissertation has two main objectives: (1) to perform a introductory study concerning the argument of the dialogue which lies in the passage 49a-c and (2) to present a translation of Platos Crito from the original text in Greek into Portuguese. With relation to the translation, it is interspersed with notes and commentaries whose intentions are: (a) to explain my understanding of the functions performed by the particles, which are plentiful in the text; (b) to clarify the syntax of the passages I considered more difficult; (c) to give support to some choices I adopted in the translation; (d) to explain some references to names, places and passages of other works mentioned in the original text; and, finally, (e) to point out some passages of the Crito with which I do not deal in this dissertation, but which are objects of study and discussion among the commentators on Plato. With relation to the passage 49a-c, Socrates proposes in it a principle that limits the retaliation in response to an injustice suffered. The study I intended to perform consists (a) in pointing out some ambiguities in the formulation of this principle and (b) in analyzing the interpretations of this passage performed by three important commentators on Plato.

Esta dissertação tem dois objetivos principais: (1) efetuar um estudo introdutório, concentrando-se sobretudo no argumento do diálogo que se encontra em 49a-c e (2) apresentar uma tradução do Críton de Platão em português a partir do original em grego. Quanto à tradução, esta está entremeada de notas e comentários que visam: (a) explicar o meu entendimento acerca das funções exercidas pelas partículas, que são abundantes no texto em grego; (b) esclarecer a sintaxe dos trechos que considerei mais complexos; (c) fundamentar algumas das opções que adotei na tradução; (d) explicar algumas referências a nomes, lugares e trechos de obras citados no texto original; e, finalmente, (e) evidenciar alguns pontos do Críton que não são tratados diretamente nesta dissertação, mas que são objetos de estudo e discussão entre os comentadores de Platão. Quanto ao trecho 49a-c, Sócrates propõe nele um princípio que limita a retaliação em resposta a uma injustiça qualquer sofrida. O estudo que me propus a fazer consiste em (a) evidenciar algumas ambigüidades presentes na formulação de tal princípio e em (b) uma análise das interpretações de três importantes comentadores de Platão sobre este tema. / This dissertation has two main objectives: (1) to perform a introductory study concerning the argument of the dialogue which lies in the passage 49a-c and (2) to present a translation of Platos Crito from the original text in Greek into Portuguese. With relation to the translation, it is interspersed with notes and commentaries whose intentions are: (a) to explain my understanding of the functions performed by the particles, which are plentiful in the text; (b) to clarify the syntax of the passages I considered more difficult; (c) to give support to some choices I adopted in the translation; (d) to explain some references to names, places and passages of other works mentioned in the original text; and, finally, (e) to point out some passages of the Crito with which I do not deal in this dissertation, but which are objects of study and discussion among the commentators on Plato. With relation to the passage 49a-c, Socrates proposes in it a principle that limits the retaliation in response to an injustice suffered. The study I intended to perform consists (a) in pointing out some ambiguities in the formulation of this principle and (b) in analyzing the interpretations of this passage performed by three important commentators on Plato.