<p>B cell lymphoma (BCL) comprises a biologically and clinically heterogeneous group of tumors deriving from different stages of B cell development. The immunoglobulin (Ig) variable heavy chain (V_H) gene rearrangement is unique for each BCL and can be used to reveal cellular origin, to study signs of antigen selection and to quantify tumor cell load.</p><p>The normal counterpart of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) has been postulated to be a naïve B cell and in hairy cell leukemia (HCL) it is considered to be a post-germinal centre B cell. We analyzed the V_H gene rearrangements in 110 MCLs and 32 HCLs by PCR amplification and sequencing. Most MCLs (84%) displayed V_H genes lacking somatic hypermutation (SHM), thus correlating to a naïve cell origin, whereas a subgroup (16%) showed SHM, implying derivation from a more differentiated B cell. In HCL, a majority of cases (84%) displayed SHM with signs of intraclonal heterogeneity and 16% had unmutated V_H genes, thus questioning the cell of origin in HCL. Biased usage of particular V_H genes was detected in both HCL (V_H3-30) and MCL (V_H3-21 and V_H4-34), which indicates that antigen selection may be involved in lymphoma development. Furthermore, V_H3-21⁺ MCLs showed a highly restricted V_λ3-19 gene use and they also had a superior outcome compared to other MCLs.</p><p>Rearrangement analysis of 67 V_H3-21⁺ chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cases from three different countries verified, regardless of geographical origin, the short and highly homologous complementarity determining region 3s and the strikingly biased usage of the V_λ2-14 gene (75%), as previously reported in CLL. This further supports that antigen selection by a common antigenic epitope may have occurred in V_H3-21⁺ CLLs. </p><p>In an autologous transplantation study of 30 multiple myeloma patients, we quantified the tumor content in the autografts before and after stem cell selection using clone-specific PCR. We conclude that stem cell selection reduced the number of clonal cells linearly, but purging could not totally eliminate the tumor cells from the graft, thus increasing the risk of a relapse.</p><p>Altogether, our data allowed us to define new BCL subsets and to gain insights into the potential role of antigen selection in BCL development as well as the monitoring of tumor cell load using Ig gene rearrangements analysis. </p>

<p>Malt lymphoma is a malignant disease that can arise in a variety of extra nodal sites. Previous studies indicate that tumour arise from more mature B-cells.</p><p>Our purpose was to examine the presence of clonality and somatic hypermutation of immunoglobulin (IgVн) of MALT lymphomas.</p><p>Paraffin-embedded tumour samples from13 MALT lymphoma were subjected to rearrangement analysis, by using PCR, heteroduplex gels and sequence analysis.</p><p>Successful amplification was seen in 10/13 cases and sequences of IgVн genes were obtained in 6/13, all of them were mutated. The percentage of mutation compared to germline sequences was 1,1% to 8,6% monoclonal rearrangemang. It was demonstrated that 5 of 7 clones were derived from the Vн3 family, 2 from Vн1 and 1 from the Vн 4 family.</p>

B cell lymphoma (BCL) comprises a biologically and clinically heterogeneous group of tumors deriving from different stages of B cell development. The immunoglobulin (Ig) variable heavy chain (VH) gene rearrangement is unique for each BCL and can be used to reveal cellular origin, to study signs of antigen selection and to quantify tumor cell load. The normal counterpart of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) has been postulated to be a naïve B cell and in hairy cell leukemia (HCL) it is considered to be a post-germinal centre B cell. We analyzed the VH gene rearrangements in 110 MCLs and 32 HCLs by PCR amplification and sequencing. Most MCLs (84%) displayed VH genes lacking somatic hypermutation (SHM), thus correlating to a naïve cell origin, whereas a subgroup (16%) showed SHM, implying derivation from a more differentiated B cell. In HCL, a majority of cases (84%) displayed SHM with signs of intraclonal heterogeneity and 16% had unmutated VH genes, thus questioning the cell of origin in HCL. Biased usage of particular VH genes was detected in both HCL (VH3-30) and MCL (VH3-21 and VH4-34), which indicates that antigen selection may be involved in lymphoma development. Furthermore, VH3-21+ MCLs showed a highly restricted Vλ3-19 gene use and they also had a superior outcome compared to other MCLs. Rearrangement analysis of 67 VH3-21+ chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) cases from three different countries verified, regardless of geographical origin, the short and highly homologous complementarity determining region 3s and the strikingly biased usage of the Vλ2-14 gene (75%), as previously reported in CLL. This further supports that antigen selection by a common antigenic epitope may have occurred in VH3-21+ CLLs. In an autologous transplantation study of 30 multiple myeloma patients, we quantified the tumor content in the autografts before and after stem cell selection using clone-specific PCR. We conclude that stem cell selection reduced the number of clonal cells linearly, but purging could not totally eliminate the tumor cells from the graft, thus increasing the risk of a relapse. Altogether, our data allowed us to define new BCL subsets and to gain insights into the potential role of antigen selection in BCL development as well as the monitoring of tumor cell load using Ig gene rearrangements analysis.

No description available.

En introduisant fréquemment des mutations ponctuelles dans les régions variables des gènes d'immunoglobulines (Ig), le processus d'hypermutation somatique (SHM, initié par la déaminase AID) est essentiel pour augmenter l'affinité des anticorps. En marge de ses cibles physiologiques (les gênes d'Ig), AID peut induire des "dommages collatéraux" au niveau de cibles "illégitimes" qui sont appelées "off targets" (dont certains oncogènes, tel que Bcl6 fréquemment muté dans les lymphomes B). Le risque élevé de dommages collatéraux dans le génome des cellules B implique que les remaniements géniques soient précisément surveillés. Parmi les éléments cis-régulateurs impliqués dans cette surveillance, on compte l'activateur cEμ au locus des chaînes lourdes des Ig (IgH) et ses régions flanquantes d'attachement à la matrice nucléaire MARsEμ (étudiés en détails dans nos modèles de souris KO). Nous montrons que la délétion des régions MARsEμ diminue non seulement les mutations au locus des chaines lourdes des Ig (effet physiologique en cis) mais également au locus des chaines légères Ig situé sur un chromosome différent (effet de trans). A l'aide d'une outil bioinformatique (DeMinEr) que nous avons développé dans le but d'identifier des mutations rares, nous montrons également que les régions MARsEμ sont impliquées dans les dommages collatéraux infligés aux "off targets" des cellules B. Grâce à la technique de FISH 3D, nous proposons que les régions MARsEμ participent à la régulation de la SHM en influençant la position des cibles de AID dans le noyau des cellules B. Notre étude met en évidence un niveau de régulation spatiale du processus de SHM médié par les régions MARsEμ du locus IgH. / By introducing frequent point mutations into the variable regions of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes, somatic hypermutation (SHM, initiated by the AID deaminase) is a driving force for antibody affinity maturation. It is now admitted that AID-induces mutations in germinal centre B cells could affect in parallel to their Ig genes physiological targets, illegitimates targets (including oncogenes) so calles "off targets" (such as Bcl6 with frequent point mutation in B lymphomas). The high risk of "collateral damage" in the B cell genome implies that remodeling events are precisely surveyed. Among cisregulatory elements involved (transcriptional enhancers and chromatin isolators and anchors...), one best candidate is the intronic region including the cEμ enhancer and iths flanking MARsEμ regions that we have been studying extensively using mouse KO model. We recently showed that MARsEμ deletion decreases SHM not only at Ig Heavy chain locus IgH (physiological cis effect) but surprisingly also at the Ig Light chain Kappa locus Ig, located on a different chromosome (trans effect). To extend the study of this intriguing trans effect, we developed a bioinformatic tool called DeMinEr that unveiled that MARsEμ regions were also involved in AID-induced collateral damages to "off-targets". Using FISH 3D, we show that MARsEμ regions harboured the potential not only to locally recruit SHM but also to cause dynamic changes of nuclear structures. The surprising cis and trans effect of MARsEμ deletion, impacting simultaneously nuclear positioning and SHM, revealed an additional level of regulation for targeting mutations to Ig and "off-targets" genes.

<p>B cell lymphomas and leukemias are heterogeneous tumors with different cellular origins. Analysis of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes enables insight into the B cell progenitor, as Ig somatic hypermutation correlates with antigen-related B cell transit through the germinal center (GC). Also, restricted Ig variable heavy chain (V_H) gene repertoires in B cell malignancies could imply antigen selection during tumorigenesis. The length of telomeres has been shown to differ between GC B cells and pre/post-GC B cells, possibly representing an alternative angle to investigate B cell tumor origin. </p><p>Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), previously postulated to derive from a naïve, pre-GC B cell, was shown to have an Ig-mutated subset (18/110 MCLs, 16%), suggestive of divergent cellular origin and GC exposure. Another subset of MCL (16/110, 15%), characterized by V_H3-21/V_λ3-19 gene usage, alludes to a role for antigen(s) in pathogenesis, also possible for hairy cell leukemia (HCL) in which the V_H3-30 gene (6/32, 19%) was overused. HCL consisted mainly of Ig-mutated cases (27/32, 84%) with low level intraclonal heterogeneity, contrasting with the proposed post-GC origin, for both Ig-mutated and Ig-unmutated HCLs. For MCL and HCL, derivation from naïve or memory marginal zone B cells which may acquire mutations without GC transit are tempting speculations, but currently little is known about this alternative immunological pathway. Heavily mutated Ig genes without intraclonal heterogeneity were demonstrated in lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma/Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia (13/14, 93%), confirming that the precursor cell was transformed after GC affinity maturation. Telomere length analysis within 304 B cell tumors revealed variable lengths; shortest in the Ig-unmutated subset of chronic lymphocytic leukemia, longest in the GC-like subtype of diffuse large B cell lymphoma, and homogeneous in MCL regardless of Ig mutation status. However, telomere length is complex with regard to GC-related origin.</p><p>In summary, this thesis has provided grounds for speculation that antigens play a role in MCL and HCL pathogenesis, although the potential antigens involved are currently unknown. It has also enabled a more informed postulation about the cellular origin of B cell tumors, which will ultimately enhance understanding of the biological background of the diseases. </p>

B cell lymphomas and leukemias are heterogeneous tumors with different cellular origins. Analysis of immunoglobulin (Ig) genes enables insight into the B cell progenitor, as Ig somatic hypermutation correlates with antigen-related B cell transit through the germinal center (GC). Also, restricted Ig variable heavy chain (VH) gene repertoires in B cell malignancies could imply antigen selection during tumorigenesis. The length of telomeres has been shown to differ between GC B cells and pre/post-GC B cells, possibly representing an alternative angle to investigate B cell tumor origin. Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), previously postulated to derive from a naïve, pre-GC B cell, was shown to have an Ig-mutated subset (18/110 MCLs, 16%), suggestive of divergent cellular origin and GC exposure. Another subset of MCL (16/110, 15%), characterized by VH3-21/Vλ3-19 gene usage, alludes to a role for antigen(s) in pathogenesis, also possible for hairy cell leukemia (HCL) in which the VH3-30 gene (6/32, 19%) was overused. HCL consisted mainly of Ig-mutated cases (27/32, 84%) with low level intraclonal heterogeneity, contrasting with the proposed post-GC origin, for both Ig-mutated and Ig-unmutated HCLs. For MCL and HCL, derivation from naïve or memory marginal zone B cells which may acquire mutations without GC transit are tempting speculations, but currently little is known about this alternative immunological pathway. Heavily mutated Ig genes without intraclonal heterogeneity were demonstrated in lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma/Waldenström’s macroglobulinemia (13/14, 93%), confirming that the precursor cell was transformed after GC affinity maturation. Telomere length analysis within 304 B cell tumors revealed variable lengths; shortest in the Ig-unmutated subset of chronic lymphocytic leukemia, longest in the GC-like subtype of diffuse large B cell lymphoma, and homogeneous in MCL regardless of Ig mutation status. However, telomere length is complex with regard to GC-related origin. In summary, this thesis has provided grounds for speculation that antigens play a role in MCL and HCL pathogenesis, although the potential antigens involved are currently unknown. It has also enabled a more informed postulation about the cellular origin of B cell tumors, which will ultimately enhance understanding of the biological background of the diseases.

Durant l’ontogénie B, le locus des chaines lourdes d’immunoglobulines (IgH) subit trois processus de réarrangements géniques. Lors des phases précoces du développement B, indépendamment de la rencontre avec un antigène, les réarrangements VDJ permettent l’obtention d’un répertoire d’Ig fonctionnelles. Lors des phases tardives, l’hypermutationsomatique (SHM) permet l’augmentation de l’affinité de l’Ig pour son antigène tandis que larecombinaison isotypique (CSR) modifie ses fonctions effectrices. Ces évènements impliquent l’induction de lésions de l’ADN potentiellement oncogéniques, ce qui impose unerégulation très stricte. Cette régulation est assurée par divers éléments cis-régulateurs répartis tout au long du locus IgH, dont la région régulatrice en 3’ (3’RR). La 3’RR s’étend sur 30 kb et contient quatre activateurs transcriptionnels, les trois premiers formant une structure palindromique. Lors de ma thèse, j’ai utilisé plusieurs modèles murins porteurs de délétions de tout ou partie de la 3’RR pour étudier son rôle, ainsi que celui des différents éléments qui la compose lors des diverses étapes de l’ontogénie B. Nous avons pu déterminer comment la 3’RR régule précisément la CSR en ciblant spécifiquement la région switch acceptrice et caractériser le phénomène encore peu connu de CSR vers IgD. D’autre part, nous avons démontré l’importance de la 3’RR lors de la SHM et dans le développement des différentes sous populations lymphocytaires B. Enfin, la comparaison des résultats obtenus lors de l’analyse des différents modèles nous a permis de déterminer que la structure palindromique de la 3’RR est importante pour une SHM efficace, mais relativement dispensable lors de la CSR. / During B-cell development, the heavy chains locus (IgH) undergoes three genic rearrangement events. During the early stages, before encountering the antigen, VDJ rearrangements allow the generation of a functional Ig repertoire. During the late stages, somatic hypermutation (SHM) increases the affinity of the Ig for its antigen, while class switch recombination (CSR) modifies its effector functions. These events imply thegeneration of potentially oncogenic DNA lesions, and thus require a strict regulation. This regulation is assured by several cis-regulatory elements spread along the IgH locus, including the 3’ regulatory region (3’RR). The 3’RR extends on more than 30kb and contains four transcriptional enhancers, the first three displaying a palindromic conformation. During my PhD, I investigated several mouse models carrying deletion of part or totality of the 3’RR to investigate its role during B cell development. We demonstrated how she precisely regulates CSR by specifically targeting the acceptor switch region, and described the poorly known mechanism of CSR toward IgD. Otherwise, we have demonstrated its importance during SHM and in the correct development of the different B cell subpopulations. Finally, by comparing the results obtained during the analysis of the various mouse models, we have demonstrated that the palindromic structure of the 3’RR is required for optimal SHM, but not for CSR.

Durant l’ontogénie B, le locus des chaînes lourdes d’immunoglobulines (IgH) subit trois processus majeurs de réarrangements géniques. Lors de la phase précoce du développement B, indépendamment de la rencontre avec un antigène (Ag), les recombinaisons VHDJH donnent le répertoire diversifié des Ig fonctionnelles. Durant la phase tardive, suite à une activation par l’Ag, l’hypermutation somatique (SHM) permet l’augmentation de l’affinité de l’Ig à son Ag et la recombinaison isotypique (CSR) va modifier ses fonctions effectrices. Tous ces processus sont strictement régulés par différents éléments cis-régulateurs repartis tout au long du locus IgH. La région régulatrice en 3’ (3’RR) en est un. Elle s’étend sur environ 30 Kb et est constituée de quatre activateurs transcriptionnels, dont les trois premiers forment une structure palindromique. La 3’RR contrôle, chez le lymphocyte B-2 (LB-2), la transcription du locus IgH, le devenir de la cellule B, la SHM et la CSR mais elle n’a aucun effet sur les recombinaisons VHDJH et la diversité du répertoire antigénique. Les LB-1 représentent un petit pourcentage des LB totaux. Ils diffèrent des LB-2 par leur origine, développement, fonctions, marqueurs de surface et distribution tissulaire. Les LB-1 maintiennent l'homéostasie dans l'organisme et sont la source principale des Ig naturelles (NIgM et NIgA) au cours des premières phases d'une réponse immunitaire. Lors de ma thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle de la 3’RR sur le développement des LB-1. D’une façon identique aux LB-2, la 3’RR contrôle la transcription du locus IgH, le devenir des cellules B et la SHM dans les LB-1. A l’inverse des LB-2, la 3’RR joue un rôle indirect sur la diversité du répertoire antigénique dans les LB-1 et n’a aucun effet sur la CSR vers IgA. Ces résultats mettent en évidence, pour la première fois, la contribution de la 3'RR dans le développement d’une population cellulaire B à l’interface entre l’immunité innée et acquise. Ils renforcent nos connaissances sur le rôle des éléments cis-régulateurs du locus IgH dans le développement de ces deux immunités. / During B-cell development, the immunoglobulin heavy chain locus (IgH) undergoes three major genic rearrangements. During the early stages, before encountering the antigen (Ag), VHDJH rearrangements allow the generation of the Ig repertoire. During the late stages, after encountering the Ag, somatic hypermutation (SHM) increases the affinity of the Ig for its Ag, while class switch recombination (CSR) modifies its effector functions. All these genetic events are strictly regulated by cis-regulatory elements spread along the IgH locus, including the 3’ regulatory region (3’RR). The 3’RR extends over more than 30kb and contains four transcriptional enhancers, the first three displaying a palindromic conformation. The 3'RR controls B2 B-cell IgH transcription, cell fate, SHM and CSR but not repertoire diversity. B1 B-cells represent a small percentage of total B-cells differing from B2 B-cells by several points such as precursors, development, functions, surface markers and tissue distribution. B1 B-cells act at the steady state to maintain homeostasis and during the earliest phases of an immune response by secreting natural Ig (NIgM and NIgA). During my PhD, we investigated the role of the 3'RR on B1 B-cells. Similarly to B2 B-cells, the 3'RR controls IgH transcription, cell fate and SHM in B1 B-cells. In contrast to B2 B-cells, 3'RR deletion indirectly affects B1 B-cell repertoire diversity and has no effect on their CSR towards IgA. These results highlight, for the first time, the contribution of the 3'RR in the development of a B-cell population at the interface between innate and acquired immunity. Moreover, these results strengthen our knowledge of the role of the cis-regulatory elements of the IgH locus in the development of these two immune responses.

Dans le but de reconnaitre et répondre de manière efficace à une très grande variétés d’agents pathogènes, les cellules B ont développé au cours des mécanismes de diversifications des immunoglobulines contrôlés par des processus génétiques complexes comme la recombinaison V(D)J, l’hypermutation somatiques (SHM), et le changement de classe par recombinaison (CSR). L’ensemble de ces processus est contrôlé par différentes voies de réparations de l’ADN. L’anémie de Fanconi est une maladie génétique rare caractérisée par une défaillance progressive de la moelle osseuse, des anomalies de développement et un risque accru de développer des leucémies et des cancers oesopharyngés. La voie FANC est impliquée dans la réparation des pontages de l’ADN et dans le maintien de la fourche de réplication en cas de stress génotoxique. Il est également bien décrit que la voie FANC joue un rôle important dans la coordination des voies de réponses aux dommages à l’ADN. Dans ce travail de thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle de la voie FANC dans les processus de diversifications des immunoglobulines.En utilisant des souris déficientes pour le gène Fanca, nous montrons que la voie FANC (ou FANCA) participe à la recombinaison V(D)J en contrôlant, dans la moelle osseuse, la transition des cellules B, du stade pre-B au stade de cellules B immatures. Ceci se ferait probablement par le contrôle de la transcription des gènes codant les chaines légères κ des immunoglobulines. Nous montrons également que Fanca pourrait avoir un rôle dans l’addition de nucleotides aux extrémités codantes, en régulant d’une manière indéterminée l’activité et/ou l’activation de l’enzyme TdT ou de la polymérase Polµ. Par ailleurs, nous avons montré que Fanca est nécessaire pour l’induction des mutations de type transitions A/T pendant le processus de SHM en régulant l’expression ou la stabilisation de Polη. Enfin, Fanca (ou la voie FANC) participe à l’inhibition de la recombinaison non homologue (NHEJ) et est requis durant le CSR pour stabiliser les duplexes entre 2 régions de microhomologies qui facilitent le recrutement d’endonucléases et réguler l’accès des DNA polymérases aux cassures de l’ADN. / To recognize and respond dynamically to an enormous variety of different pathogens, B lymphocytes of the immune system have evolved controlled genetic processes at their immunoglobulin (Ig) loci that are known as Ig diversification including V(D)J recombination, somatic hypermutation (SHM), and class switch recombination (CSR). These complex and vulnerable processes are orchestrated by multiple DNA repair pathways. Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare genetic disorder that can lead to bone marrow failure, congenital abnormalities, and an increased risk of leukemia and cancer. FANC pathway has been implicated in DNA interstrands crosslinks (ICL) repair and in the rescue of stalled replication forks. The FANC pathway also plays a fundamental role in coordinating the DNA repair pathways. Several lines of evidence suggest a possible involvement of the FANC pathway in Ig diversification processes, thus we are particularly interested in revealing function of FANC pathway during these processes. By using Fanca-/- mice, our results first show that during V(D)J recombination, Fanca (or FANC pathway) participates to the control of the transition from pre-B to immature B cells in bone marrow (BM), probably through transcriptional activation of post-rearranged κ light chain. In addition, Fanca might play a role in nucleotide addition at coding end, possibly by regulating either TdT or Polµ activity/activation. Secondly, we found that Fanca is required for the induction of transition mutations at A/T during SHM via regulation of Polη expression/stabilization. Finally, Fanca (or FANC pathway) inhibits short-range recombination and is required during CSR to stabilize duplexes between 2 short microhomology regions that facilitate the recruitment of endonucleases to trim overhangs and avoid unscheduled access of polymerases to DNA ends.