No abstract available / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Centre for Human Rights / unrestricted

The expansion of Swahili into the inner portion of Africa has routinely been explained by researchers in terms of social and economic reasons, taking into account activities of Arab traders, expansion of Islam and/or Christianity, colonisation, development of mining in Shaba region and other such factors. No explanation currently exists to my knowledge that considers the structural reasons for the expansion of Swahili, which this paper seeks to address. Concerning the power relationship between Swahili and local (mostly Bantu) languages, Swahili is thought to be on the upper level and local languages are on the lower level. This is true because Swahili is used as a lingua franca over a wide area of different languages. With respect to lexical transfer, for example, most researchers state that lexical transfer occurs from Swahili to local languages, while ignoring the influence of the local language on Swahili. However, examination of Swahili and local languages spoken together in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo suggests that the transfer is bidirectional, and the transfer from local languages to Swahili is noteworthy. In fact, Swahili adopts elements of local languages to adapt itself to the local situation, making the language familiar to local people. This paper demonstrates this by explaining the parallelism of the tense/aspect system and kinship terminology of Congo Swahili and local languages (Tembo in particular) which differ from Standard Swahili.

This thesis examines the role of local civil society organisations (CSOs) in representing and addressing local needs in hybridized peacebuilding processes in South Kivu, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). To do so it examines how local CSOs contribute to peacebuilding efforts, as well as who and what influence those contributions. Further, it considers the potential reach of such interventions at the community, provincial and national levels. The research for this thesis examines three locally founded and operated civil society organisations in Bukavu, South Kivu, whose efforts directly respond to known local causes of conflict in the region. Its findings demonstrate how they translate the needs and knowledge of community-level actors to external and international partners, from whom they receive funding and knowledge that support their ability to deliver peacebuilding projects that respond to those community-level needs. While their external international partners were found to maintain material power in relation to these peacebuilding interventions, the local CSOs were shown to hold significant discursive power in this role of translators and intermediaries in these processes. These findings challenge homogenous constructions of the local presented by post-liberal peacebuilding literature. They recognize the diversity of the local including individuals or groups who have been directly impacted by an ongoing violent conflict in a fixed geographical location whose experiences of war are shaped by their identities, and who share long-term interests in potential peace. Understanding the local in this way acknowledges a spectrum of actors contributing to peacebuilding in South Kivu and invites a reconsideration of binary constructions of hybridity. Acknowledging the important role that civil society and other intermediaries play in peacebuilding offers a foundation of understanding hybridity as a process of translation rather than shock.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / I set out to rethink the ongoing conflict in North Kivu and South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). I highlight two problems with regards to the current conceptualisation of the conflict in North Kivu and South Kivu. The first is a theoretical problem and here I demonstrate that the Banyarwanda and Banyamulenge’s quest for belonging has so far been restricted to citizenship. Congolese Banyarwanda and the Banyamulenge find themselves in a peculiar situation, at various times in the postcolonial Congolese state they had recognition from above but lacked recognition from below. It is in this context that a politics of belonging developed. The second problem is with regards to the history of the conflict. I argue that most scholarly works take the 1993 conflict in North Kivu as the starting point of the conflict, but the conflict can be traced back to an earlier date. It was with this in mind that I pose the following question: Can the conflict in North and South Kivu in the DRC be considered as a politics of belonging between indigenous Congolese and Kinyarwanda speaking Congolese, and a contest for survival between Hutu and Tutsi elites? My research is qualitative and since the problem is theoretical and historical I had to think about how the conflict was presented in terms of definitions, meaning, concepts, and so on. Therefore, this research is guided by critical theory and uses a case study research design. For this purpose, I relied on both primary and secondary data. Primary data sources for this study include the following: photographs that was taken while I was deployed in the DRC as a soldier, my personal deployment diary, internet newspaper articles, research reports of the United Nations, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, a focus group with expats from North Kivu and South Kivu, a questionnaire I distributed among expats from the DRC and an online discussion forum.

The city of Bukavu, located at the eastern border of the Democratic Republic of Congo in the province of South Kivu, is a large and densely populated urban agglomeration that has experienced rapid growth during recent years. At the same time, Bukavu has been repeatedly struck by environmental hazards, especially by devastating landslides. The steepness of slopes in the city’s hilly and mountainous terrain is one of the most important factors contributing to landslide susceptibility, but the anthropogenic impact resulting from uncoordinated urban sprawl and land cover change additionally plays a crucial role in exacerbating the vulnerability of neighbourhoods. This thesis utilizes GIS software to provide cartographic material for landslide risk assessment in Bukavu and the city’s surroundings. It examines risk exposure related to slope inclination of densely built-up areas, the spatial development of the city and urban growth tendencies, and complements these aspects with information about land cover and the terrain.

M. Tech. (Department of Information and Communication Technology, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / In most African countries, agriculture remains a key factor in economic development with over half the population living in rural areas and directly or indirectly deriving their livelihoods from agriculture. Agriculture still faces several challenges that prevent it from being able to make its maximum contribution to economic expansion, despite it being the backbone for economic growth. As a major cause for change in all spheres of human lives, information and communications technology (ICT) has played a positive role in different segments of society, such as agriculture, education and community development. However, it could play a greater role in agriculture by assisting farmers who face challenges on a daily basis. Farmers may lack an operative way to gather farm produce data, to obtain information from other interested parties (e.g. agriculture advisers) and to record farm input expenses and expenditure on farm chemicals. These and other challenges experienced by farmers may be solved by gaining ICT access through using available technologies. Farmers need to benefit from earlier unexploited opportunities regarding the provision of cost-effective communication and learn about advanced practices previously unknown to them. In this research study, the researcher studied factors that influence farmers in the adoption of a mobile crowdsourcing portal for agriculture purposes. A model was used to measure the perception of farmers about the technology after having used it for a season. The model consisted of the following variables: quality factors; perceived ease of use; experience; perceived usefulness; attitude toward using; and behavioural intention to use. A test for reliability and validity proved that the model was acceptable. The results of the data analysis indicated that there was a strong relationship between the multiple independent factors and the dependent variable in the model. The researcher concluded that mobile crowdsourcing applications are perceived as enhancing agricultural development in remote areas with regard to data accessibility, the development of crop production, support in the decision-making process and their importance in sustaining agricultural activities.

Résumé généralIntroductionL’anémie est un problème majeur de santé publique particulièrement fréquent dans les pays à faible revenu, dont la RDC, et qui affecte avec prédilection les femmes enceintes et les enfants d’âge préscolaire. Elle est associée à un risque élevé de morbidité et de mortalité. Au cours de la grossesse, l’anémie peut entraver le développement du fœtus et peut affecter négativement la santé maternelle. Chez l’enfant, l’anémie peut en plus altérer le développement physique et mental si elle n’est pas rapidement corrigée. Il est généralement admis que la carence en fer est la première cause d’anémie et les stratégies de lutte suggérées par l’Organisation mondiale de la santé en découlent. Cependant dans la région du Kivu, il n’existe que très peu d’information sur les étiologies de l’anémie et sur la contribution du paludisme et de celle de la carence en fer dans sa genèse. L’objectif global de ce travail de thèse était de contribuer à l’étude de l’anémie et de sa relation avec le paludisme et la carence en fer, en milieu rural au Sud-Kivu.Méthodes Ce travail a consisté en trois études épidémiologiques menées entre 2010 et 2014 dans la zone de santé rurale de Miti-Murhesa dans la province du Sud-Kivu à l’est de la RDC. Il s’est agit de deux études transversales et d’une étude longitudinale prospective. Cette dernière a concerné des femmes enceintes enrôlées depuis le deuxième trimestre de la grossesse à leur première consultation prénatale (CPN1) jusqu’à l’accouchement. L’une des deux études transversales a aussi recruté des femmes enceintes au deuxième trimestre de la grossesse à leur CPN1 et la deuxième a consisté en une étude en grappes à deux degrés chez des enfants d’âge préscolaire en bonne santé apparente dans la communauté. Résultats La prévalence de l’anémie chez les femmes enceintes était de 17,6% et celle de la carence en fer (ferritine ajustée) de 8%. Le paludisme était présent chez 7,5% et l’hypoalbuminémie chez 44% des sujets. La concentration plasmatique du récepteur soluble de la transferrine était plus élevée en présence du paludisme. Les facteurs significativement associés à l’anémie étaient le paludisme [ORa: 11.24 (4.98-25.37); P < 0.001], l’hypoalbuminémie [ORa: 2.14 (1.27-3.59); P = 0.004] et des valeurs élevées de la protéine C réactive [ORa: 1.94 (1.10-3.45); P = 0.022]. La carence en fer n’était pas fréquente et n’était pas significativement associée à l’anémie.La valeur médiane (EIQ) de la concentration sérique de ferritine (ajustée pour l’inflammation) était plus élevée en présence de paludisme comparée aux femmes non impaludées [82.9 μg/L (56.3-130.4) vs 39.8 μg/L (23.6-60.8); P < 0.001]. Le paludisme était plus fréquent chez les femmes sans carence en fer [ORa 6,25 (1,47-26,57); P=0,021] et chez celles n’ayant pas utilisé de moustiquaire imprégnée d’insecticide [ORa 2,24 (1,12-4,51); P=0,024].A l’admission dans l’étude prospective, 9,5% de femmes de la cohorte présentaient une infection palustre. Après régression logistique, la fréquence du paludisme était plus élevée chez les primigestes, chez les femmes avec niveau socioéconomique bas et chez celles vivant à moins de 1683 m d’altitude ;les rapports de cote ajustés (IC 95%) étaient respectivement de [2,55 (1,05-6,19) ;P=0,039] ;[4,78 (1,36-16,76) ;P=0,033] et [2,34 (1,10-5,02) ;P=0,029]. Toujours à l’admission dans la même étude, la prévalence de l’anémie était de 32%. Celle-ci était plus fréquente chez les femmes impaludées [ORa :4,20 (2,00-8,80); P<0,001] et chez celles qui n’avaient pas bénéficié d’un déparasitage dans les 3 mois avant leur admission dans l’étude [ORa :2,33 (1,25-4,35)]. A l’accouchement, le petit poids de naissance (PPN) était présent chez 6,5% des nouveau-nés. Les prédicteurs du PNN étaient l’absence d’utilisation de la MII [ORa :4,17 (1,15-14,28); P=0.030], une faible taille (<150 cm) de la mère [ORa :5,56 (2,01-15,33); P=0.001] et la présence d’anémie chez la mère à la CPN1 [ORa :4,08 (1,50-11,10); P=0.006]. Chez les enfants d’âge préscolaire, l’anémie était présente dans 46,6% des cas et la prévalence de l’anémie ferriprive chez les enfants anémiques était de 16,5%. Chez les enfants sans inflammation, la carence en fer était de 4,4% (ferritine non ajustée). Les résultats de la régression logistique ont révélé que l’anémie était significativement et indépendamment associée à la carence en fer [ORa :4,10 (2,41-6,96) ;P<0,001], à une histoire de fièvre pendant les deux semaines avant l’enquête [ORa :1,58 (1,00-2,50); P=0,049] et à un faible périmètre brachial [ORa :1,87 (1,18-2,94) ;P=0,006]. Dans un deuxième modèle ayant exclu les enfants avec carence en fer, ce sont une histoire de fièvre dans les deux semaines avant l’enquête [ORa :1,62(1,00-2,62); P=0,05] et un faible périmètre brachial [ORa :1,96(1,24-3,13); P=005] qui étaient associés significativement et indépendamment à l’anémie.Conclusion L’anémie est fréquente en milieu rural au Sud-Kivu mais la contribution de la carence en fer est faible. Néanmoins, d’autres carences nutritionnelles lui sont associées :une hypoalbuminémie chez les femmes enceintes et un faible périmètre brachial chez les enfants de moins de 5 ans. Le paludisme, d’autres infections, des états inflammatoires ainsi que le manque de déparasitage sont également d’autres facteurs qui étaient associés à l’anémie. Chez les femmes enceintes, l’absence de prévention contre le paludisme par les MII, la présence d’anémie et une faible taille de la mère étaient des prédicteurs du PPN.Une lutte intégrée contre le paludisme et d’autres maladies infectieuses ainsi que l’amélioration de l’état nutritionnel sont des facteurs vulnérables à court et moyen termes pour réduire la charge de l’anémie. Ce qui, par conséquent, contribuera à la réduction de l’incidence du PPN.Il y a une nécessité à poursuivre la recherche pour (i) identifier d’autres causes d’anémie en incluant la recherche des hémoglobinopathies et autres anomalies génétiques, (ii) améliorer les connaissances sur les meilleures stratégies de lutte contre l’anémie en intégrant la prévention contre le paludisme dans un milieu où il y a une prévalence relativement élevée d’hémoglobinopathies et autres anomalies génétiques pouvant altérer l’érythropoïèse et/ou le métabolisme du fer. / Executive summary IntroductionAnemia is a worldwide public health concern, which is particularly prevalent in low and middle-income countries, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It affects mostly pregnant women and preschool children and is associated with a higher risk of morbidity and mortality. During pregnancy, anemia is associated with poor birth outcomes and can negatively affect maternal health. In children, anemia can also alter physical and mental development if not corrected quickly. It is generally assumed that iron deficiency is the leading cause of anemia, thus that assumption had influenced control strategies suggested by the World Health Organization. However, in the Kivu region, there is little information on the aetiologies of anemia and the contribution of malaria and that of iron deficiency in the aetiology of anemia is unknown. The overall goal of this thesis was to contribute to the study of the burden of anemia and its relationship with malaria and iron deficiency in rural South Kivu.MethodsThe data are from three epidemiological studies carried out between 2010 and 2014 in the rural health zone of Miti-Murhesa in the South Kivu province in eastern DRC. There were two cross-sectional studies and one longitudinal prospective study. In the latter, pregnant women were enrolled during the second trimester of pregnancy at their first prenatal visit (ANV1) and followed-up until delivery. One of the two cross-sectional studies also enrolled pregnant women in the second trimester of pregnancy at their ANV1 and the second consisted of a two-stage cluster study at community level in apparently healthy preschool children.ResultsThe prevalence of anemia in pregnant women was 17.6% and that of iron deficiency (adjusted ferritin) was 8%. Malaria was present in 7.5% and hypoalbuminemia in 44% of subjects. Soluble transferrin receptor concentration was higher in the presence of malaria. Factors significantly associated with anemia were malaria [ORa: 11.24 (4.98-25.37); P < 0.001], hypoalbuminemia [ORa: 2.14 (1.27-3.59); P = 0.004] and high values of the C reactive protein [ORa: 1.94 (1.10-3.45); P = 0.022]. Iron deficiency was not common and was not significantly associated with anemia.The median value (IQR) of serum ferritin concentration (adjusted for inflammation) was higher in the presence of malaria compared to non-infected women [82.9 μg/L (56.3-130.4) vs 39.8 μg/L (23.6-60.8 ); P < 0.001]. Malaria was more common in women without iron deficiency [ORa 6.25 (1.47-26.57); P = 0.021] and in those who did not use insecticide-treated mosquito nets [ORa 2.24 (1.12-4.51); P = 0.024].At admission in the prospective study, 9.5% of women in the cohort had malaria infection. After logistic regression, malaria was higher in primigravidae, among women with low socioeconomic status and those living at an altitude of less than 1683 m; the adjusted odds ratios (95% CI) were [2.55 (1.05-6.19); P = 0.039]; [4.78 (1.36-16.76); P = 0.033] and [2.34 (1.10-5.02); P = 0.029], respectively.Still at admission in the same study, the prevalence of anemia was 32%. This was more common in malaria-infected women [ORa: 4.20 (2.00-8.80); P < 0.001] and in those who were not dewormed within the last 3 months prior to admission into the study [ORa: 2.33 (1.25-4.35); P = 0.008]. At delivery, low birth weight (LBW) was present in 6.5% of new-borns. Predictors of LBW were the lack of use of ITN [ORa: 4.17 (1.15-14.28); P = 0.030], a low height (< 150 cm) of the mother [ORa: 5.56 (2.01-15.33); P = 0.001] and the presence of maternal anemia at ANV1 [ORa: 4.08 (1.50-11.10); P = 0.006].In pre-school children, anemia was present in 46.6% and the prevalence of iron deficiency among anemic children was 16.5%. In children without inflammation, iron deficiency was 4.4% (unadjusted ferritin). Logistic regression analysis revealed that anemia was significantly and independently associated with iron deficiency [ORa: 4.10 (2.41-6.96); P < 0.001], with fever during the last two weeks before the survey [ORa: 1.58 (1.00-2.50); P = 0.049] and with a low mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) [ORa: 1.87 (1.18-2.94); P = 0.006]. In a second model that excluded children with iron deficiency, history of fever in the last two weeks before the survey [ORa: 1.62 (1.00-2.62); P = 0.05] and a low MUAC [ORa: 1.96 (1.24-3.13); P = 005] were significantly and independently associated with anemia.ConclusionAnemia is common in rural South Kivu but the contribution of iron deficiency is low. However, other nutritional deficiencies are associated: hypoalbuminemia in pregnant women and low MUAC in preschool children. Malaria, other infections, inflammatory conditions as well as lack of deworming are also other factors that were associated with anemia. In pregnant women, lack of prevention against malaria by ITNs before ANV1, presence of anemia at ANV1, and low maternal height were predictors of LBW.Integrated control of malaria and other infectious diseases as well as improving nutritional status are among vulnerable factors in the short- and middle-term to reduce the burden of anemia in South Kivu. This, in turn, will help to reduce the incidence of LBW.There is need for further research to (i) identify other causes of anemia including hemoglobinopathies and other genetic disorders, (ii) improve knowledge of the best strategies for controlling anemia by integrating prevention of malaria in an environment where there is a relatively high prevalence of hemoglobinopathies and other genetic abnormalities that may alter erythropoiesis and/or iron metabolism. / Doctorat en Sciences de la santé Publique / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Cette étude analyse l’impact du processus libéral de paix en République Démocratique du Congo sur la poursuite des violences dans les provinces du Nord et du Sud Kivu. Elle soutient que les dynamiques conflictuelles dans ces deux régions sont entretenues par l’établissement d’un programme de partage de pouvoir (power sharing), inclusif, jumelé à l’application des réformes économiques libérales. En se concentrant sur la réforme du secteur de sécurité et l’harmonisation de la politique nationale (en vue des élections post-conflictuelles de 2006), le processus de paix néglige les enjeux politiques et socio-économiques locaux. Le désengagement de l’État et la libéralisation du secteur minier accentuent le taux de corruption du gouvernement de transition et renforcent l’exploitation illégale des ressources par les groupes armés. Cette recherche soutient que l’implantation massive d’entreprises minières multinationales dans les provinces du Nord et du Sud Kivu aggrave la déformation des tissus socio-économiques locaux, accentue la dépendance des populations aux réseaux de gouvernance informelle et renforce les divers groupes armés présents sur le terrain. Par conséquent, les réformes structurelles menées dans le cadre du processus libéral de paix font perdurer les violences et occasionnent de nouvelles dynamiques conflictuelles localisées autour du contrôle des ressources locales, qu’elles soient d’ordre économique ou politique. / This study analyzes the impact of the liberal peace process on the continuation of violence in the provinces of North and South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The study finds that conflict dynamics in the two regions are maintained by the establishment of an inclusive power sharing program that is paired with the application of liberal economic reforms. By focusing on reforms in the security sector and on the harmonization of national politics (with the post-conflict elections of 2006 in view), the peace process neglects local political and socio-economic issues. The disengagement of the state and the liberalization of the mining sector increase the corruption levels of the transition government and reinforce the illegal exploitation of resources by armed groups. This research supports that the massive establishment of multinational mining companies in the provinces of North and South Kivu contributes to the deformation of the local socio-economic fabric, increasing the dependence of local populations to informal governance networks and strengthening the diverse armed groups present in the region. Thus, the structural reforms carried within the framework of the liberal peace process perpetuate violence and cause new conflict dynamics centered around the control of local resources, whether economic or political.

Cette étude analyse l’impact du processus libéral de paix en République Démocratique du Congo sur la poursuite des violences dans les provinces du Nord et du Sud Kivu. Elle soutient que les dynamiques conflictuelles dans ces deux régions sont entretenues par l’établissement d’un programme de partage de pouvoir (power sharing), inclusif, jumelé à l’application des réformes économiques libérales. En se concentrant sur la réforme du secteur de sécurité et l’harmonisation de la politique nationale (en vue des élections post-conflictuelles de 2006), le processus de paix néglige les enjeux politiques et socio-économiques locaux. Le désengagement de l’État et la libéralisation du secteur minier accentuent le taux de corruption du gouvernement de transition et renforcent l’exploitation illégale des ressources par les groupes armés. Cette recherche soutient que l’implantation massive d’entreprises minières multinationales dans les provinces du Nord et du Sud Kivu aggrave la déformation des tissus socio-économiques locaux, accentue la dépendance des populations aux réseaux de gouvernance informelle et renforce les divers groupes armés présents sur le terrain. Par conséquent, les réformes structurelles menées dans le cadre du processus libéral de paix font perdurer les violences et occasionnent de nouvelles dynamiques conflictuelles localisées autour du contrôle des ressources locales, qu’elles soient d’ordre économique ou politique. / This study analyzes the impact of the liberal peace process on the continuation of violence in the provinces of North and South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The study finds that conflict dynamics in the two regions are maintained by the establishment of an inclusive power sharing program that is paired with the application of liberal economic reforms. By focusing on reforms in the security sector and on the harmonization of national politics (with the post-conflict elections of 2006 in view), the peace process neglects local political and socio-economic issues. The disengagement of the state and the liberalization of the mining sector increase the corruption levels of the transition government and reinforce the illegal exploitation of resources by armed groups. This research supports that the massive establishment of multinational mining companies in the provinces of North and South Kivu contributes to the deformation of the local socio-economic fabric, increasing the dependence of local populations to informal governance networks and strengthening the diverse armed groups present in the region. Thus, the structural reforms carried within the framework of the liberal peace process perpetuate violence and cause new conflict dynamics centered around the control of local resources, whether economic or political.