Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The georeferenced soil sampling using sampling grids is the main strategy of precision agriculture (PA) to recognize the spatial variability of soil attributes, allowing manage them in site-specific. In this context, the objective of the work was to evaluate the efficiency of using different sizes of sampling grids in the characterization of spatial variability of chemical attributes in Oxisols managed with PA in Southern Brazil. Therefore, the work consists of three studies. In studies one and two were used 60 areas (6,046.55 ha), located in 23 counties of North region of Rio Grande do Sul (RS). The areas were sampled using regular grids of 100 x 100 m (20 areas), 142 x 142 m (20 areas) and 173 x 173 m (20 areas), being that 10 areas of each grid were collected from 0.00-0.10 m and 10 areas from 0.00-0.15 m. The spatial variability of acidity attributes (pHwater and base saturation) and bases related (Ca and Mg) (study one) and the levels of P and K (study two) were analyzed by descriptive statistics and geostatistics. In study three, was used an area of 41.96 ha, located in Boa Vista das Missões - RS, where was made the collect of soil in seven sizes of sample grids, 50 x 50 m, 75 m x 75, 100 x 100 m, 125 m x 125, 150 x 150 m, 175 m and 200 x 175 x 200 m, at depth of 0.00-0.10 m. The levels of P and K were analyzed by descriptive statistics and geostatistics, and the similarity of thematic maps was compared by the coefficient of relative deviation (CRD) and by Pearson correlation matrix (p <0.05). The areas of Oxisols managed with PA in RS, show moderate acidity and high fertility, with the exception of subareas that presents limiting P levels. Independently of the depth sampled, the grid sample sizes used in RS state, in general, are not efficient in capturing the different scales of variability in soil chemical properties. According as increase the sample grid the thematic maps of P (CRD: 24.0 to 36.2%) and K (CRD: 11.7 to 19.4%) show more dissimilar to those obtained in smaller grid (50 x 50 m) considered as reference. Thus, the reduction of sampling grid sizes increases the accuracy of the information generated through thematic maps, allowing to do prescriptions of lime and fertilizers on site-specific with greater efficiency, and should be recommended in future sampling plans of soil adopted in PA areas in Southern Brazil. / A amostragem georreferenciada de solo utilizando malhas regulares é a principal estratégia da agricultura de precisão (AP) para reconhecer a variabilidade espacial dos atributos de solo, possibilitando manejá-los em sítio-específico. Nesse contexto, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar a eficiência do uso de diferentes dimensões de malhas amostrais na caracterização da variabilidade espacial de atributos químicos em Latossolos Vermelhos manejados com AP no Sul do Brasil. Para tanto, o trabalho constitui-se de três estudos. Nos estudos um e dois utilizaram-se 60 áreas (6.046,55 ha), localizadas em 23 municípios da região Norte do Rio Grande do Sul (RS). As áreas foram amostradas utilizando malhas regulares de 100 x 100 m (20 áreas); 142 x 142 m (20 áreas) e 173 x 173 m (20 áreas), sendo que 10 áreas de cada malha foram coletadas de 0,00-0,10 m e 10 áreas de 0,00-0,15 m. A variabilidade espacial dos atributos de acidez (pHágua e saturação por bases) e bases relacionadas (Ca e Mg) (estudo um) e dos teores de P e K (estudo dois) foram analisadas por meio da estatística descritiva e geoestatística. No estudo três, utilizou-se uma área de 41,96 ha, localizada em Boa Vista das Missões RS, onde foi realizada a coleta de solo em sete dimensões de malha amostral, 50 x 50 m, 75 x 75 m, 100 x 100 m, 125 x 125 m, 150 x 150 m, 175 x 175 m e 200 x 200 m, na profundidade de 0,00-0,10 m. Os teores de P e K foram analisados por meio da estatística descritiva e da geoestatística, e a similaridade dos mapas temáticos foi comparada pelo coeficiente de desvio relativo (CDR) e pela matriz de correlação de Pearson (p <0,05). As áreas de Latossolos Vermelhos manejadas com AP no estado do RS apresentam moderada acidez e alta fertilidade, com exceção de locais que apresentam teores limitantes de P. Independente da profundidade amostrada, as dimensões das malhas amostrais utilizadas no RS, em geral, não são eficientes em captar as diferentes escalas de variabilidade dos atributos químicos do solo. À medida que aumenta a malha amostral os mapas temáticos de P (CDR: 24,0 a 36,2%) e K (CDR: 11,7 a 19,4%) mostram-se mais dissimilares aos obtidos na menor malha (50 x 50 m) considerada como referência. Desta forma, a redução da dimensão da malha amostral aumenta a acurácia das informações geradas por meio de mapas temáticos, permitindo realizar prescrições de corretivos e fertilizantes em sítio-específico com maior eficiência, e devem ser preconizadas em futuros planos de amostragem de solo adotados nas áreas de AP no Sul do Brasil.

Cette étude a pour but d'identifier les principales maladies coralliennes, de quantifier leurs prévalences sur les récifs de la Réunion, d'Afrique du Sud et de Mayotte et de déterminer leurs variations spatiales et saisonnières. Les résultats ont révélé la présence de six grands types de maladies coralliennes. Les prévalences totales moyennes des maladies ont été plus élevées à la Réunion (7.5 ± 2.2%) qu'en Afrique du Sud (3.9 ± 0.8%) et qu'à Mayotte (2.7 ± 0.3%). Les genres coralliens Acropora et Porites ont été les plus vulnérables aux maladies dans les trois régions étudiées. Des variations spatiales et saisonnières ont été détectées pour la maladie de la bande noire (BBD) et les syndromes blancs (WS) à la fois à la Réunion et en Afrique du Sud avec des prévalences plus élevées sur les récifs peu profonds et pendant la saison chaude. Ce travail a également pour but de caractériser deux maladies non décrites à ce jour : le syndrome des patches blancs (PWPS) et le syndrome du patch noir (PBPS) chez Porites. PWPS, observé à fois à la Réunion, en Afrique du Sud et à Mayotte est caractérisé par d'importantes fragmentations tissulaires généralement associées à des corps ovoïdes basophiles ressemblant à des agrégats bactériens. L'analyse bactérienne a révélé une grande variabilité entre les tissus infectés et sains. L'identification des pathogènes responsables de PWPS a également été réalisée en laboratoire. Sur les 14 souches bactériennes sélectionnées et testées, seule la P180R, génétiquement proche de Vibrio tubiashii a généré des signes de PWPS. Pour finir, PBPS, une forme atypique de BBD a été observée sur les récifs de la Réunion. Les suivis réalisés ont montré des variations spatiales et saisonnières avec des prévalences plus élevées sur le platier et pendant l'été. L'histologie a mis en évidence la présence de cyanobactéries et de corps basophiles dans les tissus infectés du corail. L'analyse génétique a révélé la présence d'une plus grande diversité de taxons dans les tissus infectés par PBPS que dans les tissus sains représentés par le genre Vibrio. / During the past two decades, the emergence and spread of infectious diseases have caused substantial declines in the biodiversity and abundance of reef-building corals. Despite their increased global prevalence and virulence, little is known about coral diseases on Indian Ocean coral reefs. This study aims to fill this gap in knowledge by identifying the main coral diseases and quantify their prevalence at three localities Reunion, South Africa and Mayotte, determining their spatial distribution and seasonal variation. Principal findings of this study demonstrated the presence of six main coral diseases including black band disease (BBD), white syndromes (WS), pink line syndrome (PLS), growth anomalies (GA), skeleton eroding band (SEB) and Porites white patch syndrome (PWPS). The overall disease prevalence was higher in Reunion (7.5 ± 2.2%; mean ± SE) compared to South Africa (3.9 ± 0.8%; mean ± SE) and Mayotte (2.7 ± 0.3%; mean ± SE). Acropora and Porites were the genera most vulnerable to disease. Spatial variability was detected in both Reunion and South Africa with BBD and WS more prevalent on shallow than deep reefs. There was also evidence of seasonality in two diseases: BBD and WS, their prevalence being higher in summer than winter. Corals exhibiting signs of PWPS revealed extensive tissue fragmentation, generally associated with ovoid basophilic bodies resembling bacterial aggregates within the mesoglea of the body wall. Other organisms, including Cyanobacteria, Nematoda, Ciliata and endophytic algae, were also observed on diseased tissues and were generally associated with the dead epidermis and cell debris. Results of 16S rRNA sequence analysis revealed a high variability between bacterial communities associated with PWPS-infected and healthy tissues in Porites lutea. Several bacterial ribotypes affiliated to potential putative pathogens notably Shimia marina and Vibrio hepatarius were consistently found among the 16S rRNA sequences derived from the PWPS lesions, and absent and/or poorly represented in HT. Primary pathogens involved in the PWPS were also investigated in this study using traditional culturing techniques and laboratory infection trials. Of the 14 isolates selected for the inoculation trials, only the bacterial strain P180R mostly phylogenetically closely related8 to Vibrio tubiashii with its closest known sister taxon, V. hepatarius, was shown to cause signs resembling those of PWPS and satisfied the four Henle-Koch’s postulates. P180R displayed focalised and progressive tissue paling 12 h after inoculation and visible lesions of PWPS were observed 12 h thereafter. Signs of PWPS appeared on 90% of the exposed coral fragments (27 of 30) under controlled environmental conditions. Moreover, the virulence of this marine pathogen was tested and seemed to be strongly dependent on seawater temperature, resulting in significantly higher tissue loss at 30°C than 28°C and 26°C. Finally, a multidisciplinary approach involving field surveys, gross lesion monitoring, histopathology and 454-pyrosequencing was investigated to characterize an atypical form of BBD named PBPS. Histology revealed cyanobacterial penetration of the compromised tissue as well as the presence of basophilic bodies resembling bacterial aggregates in the living tissue, adjacent to the bacterial mat. Bacterial 16S rRNA sequences yielded a broader diversity of bacterial taxa in PBPS-infected tissues than in healthy tissue, represented by the genus Vibrio (24.9%), followed by sulfate-reducers or sulfide-oxidizers such as Desulfovibrio (20%), Clostridium (12.9%) and Arcobacter (9.9%). PBPS appears to be a multi-stage disease triggered by cyanobacterial invasion and resulting in secondary infections by environmental bacteria that grow in mucus-like decomposing tissue.

L’usage répété d’isoproturon (IPU) en agriculture pour contrôler développement de plantes adventices dans les cultures céréalières a non seulement abouti à la contamination du sol et des ressources en eaux mais également à l’adaptation de la microflore du sol à la dégradation accélérée de cet herbicide appartenant à la famille des phénylurées. A l’heure actuelle, les mécanismes microbiens impliqués dans cette adaptation ne sont pas encore parfaitement élucidés. Dans ce contexte, l’objectif de cette étude était d’explorer les processus et les facteurs impliqués dans la biodégradation de l’isoproturon, et ce, depuis l’échelle agricole de la parcelle jusqu’à celle des gènes codant cette fonction dans des populations microbienne dégradantes.L’étude réalisée à partir d’une parcelle expérimentale du domaine d’Epoisses, cultivée selon une rotation blé d’hiver/ orge / colza, a montré que, suite à l’usage répété d’IPU, la microflore du sol s’était adaptée à sa minéralisation. Des analyses réalisées à l’aide d’outils statistiques et géostatistiques ont révélé l’existence d’une variabilité spatiale de la minéralisation de l’IPU au sein de la parcelle agricole. Celle-ci s’est révélée être non seulement corrélée avec différents caractéristiques physicochimiques du sol (C/N, CEC, …) mais également avec le plan d’épandage des pesticides au cours de la rotation culturale.Afin de mieux étudier les mécanismes moléculaires responsables de la minéralisation de l’IPU, une culture bactérienne ainsi qu’une souche (Sphingomonas sp. SH) minéralisant l’IPU ont été isolées par enrichissement à partir de deux sols différents, tous deux adaptés à la biodégradation accélérée de l’IPU. La culture bactérienne et la souche pure ont toutes deux montré un métabolisme spécifique pour la dégradation de l’IPU, étant capables de dégrader l’IPU et ses principaux métabolites mais aucun des autres herbicides de la famille des phénylurées. La culture bactérienne et la souche présentaient une activité dégradante optimale à pH7,5 et étaient affectées par des pH inférieurs et supérieurs à cette valeur optimale. Sur la base des métabolites accumulés lors de la dégradation de l’IPU, nous avons proposé que l’IPU serait dégradé par deux déméthylations successives, suivi par la coupure de la chaine urée aboutissant à l’accumulation de 4-isopropylaniline, et finalement la minéralisation du cycle phényl.Afin d’identifier les gènes impliqués dans la minéralisation de l’IPU, une banque de clones BAC a été réalisée à partir de l’ADN génomique purifié de la culture bactérienne. Bien que le crible fonctionnel réalisé n’a pas permis d’identifier de BAC capable de dégrader l’IPU ou l’un de ses métabolites, un criblage moléculaire par PCR ciblant la séquence catA codant la catéchol 1,2-dioxygénase, nous a permis d’identifier trois BACs. Le pyroséquençage des ces 3 BACs et l’agrégation des séquences correspondantes ont permis d’identifier un fragment génomique de 33 kb présentant notamment l’opéron cat impliqué dans le clivage ortho du cycle phényl du catéchol. De ce fait nous avons émis l’hypothèse selon laquelle la 4-isopropylaniline formée lors de la dégradation de l’IPU pourrait être minéralisée par le clivage ortho du catéchol, un intermédiaire clef de la voie des beta-kétoadipates. Ceci nous a donc permis de proposer une voie métabolique pour la voie basse de la dégradation de l’IPU qui, jusqu’alors, n’avait pas encore été décrite. / Frequent use of phenylurea herbicide isoproturon (IPU) in agricultural fields has resulted not only in the contamination of the natural resources including soil and water but also in the adaptation of the soil microflora to its rapid degradation. However, up to now, the mechanisms underlying this microbial adaptation are not well elucidated. The aim of this study was to explore the processes and factors implicated in IPU degradation from the agricultural field to the genes coding for catabolic genes. The study carried out at the experimental field of Epoisses cropped with a winter wheat / barley / rape seed crop rotation indicated that as a result of its periodically repeated use, the soil microflora adapted to IPU mineralization activity. Further analysis using exploratory and geostatistical tools demonstrated the existence of spatial variability in IPU mineralization activity at the field scale which was correlated not only with several soil physico-chemical parameters like organic matter content, CEC and C/N ratio but also with the pesticide application plan over a three year crop rotation. In order to get further insight into underlying mechanisms, an IPU mineralizing bacterial culture and strain Sphingomonas sp. SH were isolated through enrichment cultures performed from two different adapted soils. Both had the catabolic activities highly specific for the mineralization of IPU and its metabolites but none of other structurally related phenylurea herbicides. IPU metabolic activity of both the mixed culture and the strain SH was found to be affected by pH with optimal activity taking place at pH 7.5. Based on the accumulation of different known metabolites during mineralization kinetics, IPU metabolic pathway was proposed to be initiated by two successive demethylations, followed by cleavage of the urea side chain resulting in the accumulation of 4-isopropylaniline, and ultimately the mineralization of the phenyl ring. In order to identify the genes involved in IPU degradation, BAC clone library was established from the genomic DNA of the bacterial culture. Although, the functional screening did not yield in identifying any BAC clone able to degrade IPU or its known metabolites, the PCR based screening led us to identify a cat gene cluster involved in ortho-cleavage of the phenyl ring of catechol through beta-ketoadipate pathway. Based on this finding, it was hypothesized that phenyl ring of 4-isopropylaniline formed during IPU transformation might be mineralized through ortho-cleavage of catechol. This finding allowed us to propose the lower IPU metabolic pathway which was not yet described.

Orientador: Rafael Montanari / Resumo: Na busca por soluções que otimizem as operações, auxiliem no planejamento e reduzam os custos operacionais no manejo do solo, a geoestatística tem sido aplicada em diversas áreas. Utilizando a geoestatística como ferramenta e forma de planejamento de manejo, o presente trabalho objetivou-se analisar economicamente a recuperação da fertilidade do solo de uma pastagem potencialmente degradada no cerrado brasileiro em dois sistemas de intervenção: convencional (SC) e agricultura de precisão (AP) e gerar informações por meio da análise de variabilidade e estabelecimento da estrutura de dependência espacial, a fim de auxiliar no planejamento de atividades agrícolas em seis cidades na província de El Oro, Equador. O trabalho foi realizado no ano agrícola de 2015/2016 na área experimental de sistemas de produção em bovinocultura de corte pertencente à Faculdade de Engenharia – UNESP, Campus de Ilha Solteira, São Paulo, Brasil e na Universidade Técnica de Machala (UTMACH), Machala, Equador. A recuperação no SC apresentou índice de lucratividade negativa (-1,32%) e no AP positiva (0,26%) proporcionando um preço de custo @-1 de R$ 155,52 e R$ 153,10 para o SC e AP, respectivamente. Comparando-se áreas cultivadas com AP e SC, é provável que se obtenha resultados mais confiáveis e com melhores perspectivas em maiores áreas de cultivo de forma a aumentar a rentabilidade do sistema. Na província de El Oro, o teor de Zinco obteve o maior coeficiente de determinação espacial. O pH se destaco... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: A demand for solutions that optimize operations, support planning and reduce operational costs in soil management, geostatistics has been applied in several areas. Using geostatistics as a tool and management planning method, the present work aimed to economically analyze the soil fertility recovery of a potentially degraded pasture in the Brazilian cerrado in two intervention systems: conventional (CS) and precision agriculture (PA) and generate information through variability analysis and establishment of spatial dependence structure to assist in the planning of agricultural activities in six cities in El Oro province, Ecuador. The work was carried out in the 2015/2016 agricultural year in the experimental area of beef cattle production systems belonging to the Faculty of Engineering - UNESP, Ilha Solteira Campus, São Paulo, Brazil and the Technical University of Machala, Machala, Ecuador. The recovery in CS presented negative profitability index (-1,32%) and positive in PA (0,26%) providing a cost @ -1 price of R$ 155,52 and R$ 153,10 for CS and PA, respectively. Comparing cultivated areas with PA and CS, it is likely that more reliable results and better prospects will be obtained in larger cultivated areas in order to increase the profitability of the system. In El Oro province, the Zinc content obtained the highest coefficient of special determination, but low range, which may be influence by the numbers of pairs in the first Lag. The pH stood out as the major influence... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Understanding the spatial and temporal dynamics of soil water and crop water stress within a field is critical for effective Variable Rate Irrigation (VRI) management. Proper VRI can result in improved protection of the crop from early onset of crop water stress while minimizing runoff and drainage losses. The objectives of this study are (1) to examine zone delineation for informing irrigation recommendations from volumetric water content (VWC) and field capacity (FC) to grow similar or greater wheat yields with less water, (2) evaluate the ability to model soil and crop water dynamics within a season and within a field of irrigated winter wheat, and evaluate the sensitivity of crop water stress, evapotranspiration and soil water depletion outputs within a water balance model with Penman-Monteith evapotranspiration (ET) in response to adjusted soil properties, spring volumetric water content (VWC), and crop coefficient model input values. Five irrigation zones were delineated from two years of historical yield and evapotranspiration (ET) data. Soil sensors were placed at multiple depths within each zone to give real time data of the VWC values within each soil profile. Soil samples were taken within a 22 ha field of winter wheat (Triticum aestivum ‘UI Magic’) near Grace, Idaho, USA multiple times during a growing season to describe the spatial variation of VWC throughout the field, and to assist in modeling soil water dynamics and crop water stress through energy balance and water balance equations. Spatial variation of VWC was observed throughout the field, and on a smaller scale within each zone, suggesting the benefit of breaking portions of the field into zones for irrigation management purposes. Irrigation events were triggered when soil sensors detected low values of VWC, with each zone receiving unique rates intended to refill to zone specific FC. Cumulative irrigation rates varied among zones and the VRI approach saved water when compared to an estimated uniform Grower Standard Practice (GSP) irrigation approach. This method of zone management with soil sampling and sensors approximately represented the VWC within each zone and proved beneficial with effective reduction of irrigation rates in every zone compared to an estimated GSP. As such, there was a delay in the premature onset of crop water stress throughout some areas of the field. Variability in soil properties and spring soil moisture were key in giving accurate values to the model in order to make proper VRI management decisions. When assessing the model sensitivity, changing the inputs such as FC, wilting point (WP), total available water (TAW), spring VWC and crop coefficient (Kc) by -4 to +4 standard deviations away from their spatially average values, impacted the outputs of the model, with Kc having a large impact all three of the outputs. Further work is needed to improve the accuracy of representing VWC throughout a field, thus improving VRI management, and there is potential benefit in using a variable crop coefficient could to more accurate VRI management decisions from a soil water depletion model.

Die Berücksichtigung der flächenhaften bodenhydraulischen Variabilität gilt bei der Modellierung von Wasser- und Stofftransportprozessen als problematisch. Dies liegt vorrangig an ihrer Erfassung, die kosten- und zeitintensiv ist. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht verschiedene Messstrategien, die zur Abbildung der flächenhaften Bodenhydraulik mit wenigen, einfach zu bestimmenden und physikalisch begründeten Bodenparametern führen. Die Vorgehensweise erfolgt mit der Anwendung eines Ähnlichkeitskonzeptes, das die Böden in bodenhydraulisch ähnliche Klassen unterteilt. Innerhalb einer Klasse kann die Variabilität der Retentions- und hydraulischen Leitfähigkeitcharakteristik auf einen freien Parameter (Skalierungsparameter) reduziert werden. Die Analyse der Zusammenhänge zwischen Boden- und Skalierungsparametern führt letztendlich zu den geeigneten Parametern die eine flächenhafte Abbildung möglich machen. Diese Untersuchungen bilden die Grundlage für die weitere Entwicklung eines stochastischen Modellansatzes, der die Variabilität der Bodenhydraulik bei der Modellierung des Bodenwassertransportes im Feldmaßstab berücksichtigen kann. An Hand von drei Datensätzen unterschiedlicher Skalenausbreitung konnte dieses Konzept angewendet werden. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass die Beschreibung der hydraulischen Variabilität nur für die vertikale (Profil) nicht aber für die flächenhafte Ausbreitung mit einfachen Bodenparametern möglich ist. Mit einer ersten Modellanwendung konnte gezeigt werden, dass über die Variabilität der Bodenparameter Trockenrohdichte und Tongehalt auch die Variabilität der Bodenhydraulik und damit die Berechnung des Bodenfeuchteverlaufs am Standort darstellbar ist. / The consideration of the spatial variability of the unsaturated soil hydraulic characteristics still remains an unsolved problem in the modelling of the water and matter transport in the vadose zone. This can be mainly explained by the rather cumbersome measurement of this variability, which is both, time-consuming and cost-intensive. The presented thesis analyses various measurement strategies which aim at the description of the soil-hydraulic heterogeneity by a small number of proxy-parameters, which should be easily measurable and still have a soil-physical meaning. The developed approach uses a similarity concept, which groups soils into similar soil hydraulic classes. Within a class, the variability of the retention and hydraulic conductivity curves can be explained by a single parameter (scaling parameter). The analysis of the correlation between the soil parameters and the scaling parameters can eventually indicate which soil parameters can be used for describing the soil hydraulic variability in a given area. This investigation forms the basis for the further development of a stochastic model, which can integrate the soil-hydraulic variability in the modelling of the soil water transport. Three data sets, all covering different scales, were subsequently used in the application of the developed concept. The results show that depth development of the soil-hydraulic variability in a soil profile can be explained by a single soil parameter. Contrarily, the explanation of the horizontal variability of the soil-hydraulic properties was not possible with the given data sets. First model applications for a soil profile showed that including the variability of the soil parameters bulk density and clay fraction in the water transport simulations could describe the variability of the soil-hydraulic variability and thus, the dynamics of the soil water content at the investigated profile.

The hydrograph at the watershed outlet was simulated using the time-area curve concept implemented in a geographic information system (GIS). The goal of this study was to determine if hydrograph prediction accuracy would be improved by accounting for spatial and temporal variation of excess rainfall. Three models with different methods of estimating excess rainfall were developed: the Distributed Curve Number (DCN) model uses a CN for each cell, generating spatially distributed excess rainfall using the Soil Conservation Services curve number method (SCS, 1972); the Uniform Curve Number (UCN) model uses a single "average" CN for the whole watershed, thus generating a uniform excess rainfall; the Phi index model which uses the Phi-index method to generate uniform excess rainfall. With the aid of a GIS, the cumulative flow time to the watershed outlet is estimated for each cell in the watershed and the isochrones of equal travel time are developed. The time-area curve is developed in the form of an S curve. The spatially distributed 1-hr unit hydrograph is derived from the S curve as the difference between the S curve and its value lagged by 1-hr. The models used in this study describe the physical processes and flow mechanisms. They also reflect effects of watershed characteristics (slope, landuse, soil drainage potential) and excess rainfall intensity on the resulting hydrograph at the watershed outlet. Surface flow is divided into channel flow and overland flow based on the upstream drainage area. Flow is routed to the watershed outlet through a channel network derived from the watershed Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The models developed were tested against observed rainfall-runoff data from the 1153-ha Virginia Piedmont watershed (Owl Run). A total of 30 storms were simulated, with statistical comparison of peak flow rate, time to peak flow rate, and the hydrograph shape. The hydrograph shape was compared both visually and statistically. Results indicated that the two models which account for temporal variation in excess rainfall (DCN and UCN) predicted the output hydrograph much more accurately than the Phi model which lacks the ability to capture the temporal variation of excess rainfall. For this watershed, results showed that the spatial variability in excess rainfall which was accounted for by the DCN model did not improve the prediction accuracy over the UCN model which lacks that ability. However, a sensitivity analysis for the effect of the spatial distribution of the excess rainfall indicated that can be a significant effect of spatial distribution on the predicted hydrograph. / Master of Science

O presente trabalho foi realizado em cafeeiros (Coffea arabica L.) cv. Icatu Vermelho IAC 4045, cultivados a pleno sol e consorciados com banana ‘Prata An㒠(Musa AAB), em Mococa - SP (Latitude 21º 28’ S, Longitude 47º 01’ W, altitude 665m). Foi realizada a caracterização microclimática, entre outubro de 2001 e setembro de 2002, onde foram medidos a radiação solar global, saldo de radiação, velocidade do vento e temperatura e umidade relativa do ar nos dois sistemas de cultivo. No período do inverno de 2002 e 2003, foi realizado um estudo da influência das bananeiras na variabilidade espacial da temperatura do ar e folha, além do saldo de radiação, em episódios de resfriamento noturno. Realizou-se também uma caracterização aerodinâmica e energética dos cultivos, entre dezembro de 2002 e novembro de 2003, onde foram obtidos os perfis dos bulbos seco e úmido, além da velocidade do vento em sete níveis de medida. Entre julho de 2001 a junho de 2004 foram atribuídas notas de desenvolvimento fenológico dos cultivos, além de se avaliar, o crescimento das plantas em altura e diâmetro da copa. Nas safras de 2002, 2003 e 2004 foram avaliados os parâmetros de produção nos dois sistemas de cultivo, além da variabilidade desses nas parcelas do cultivo consorciado. Houve uma atenuação dos valores de radiação solar global (21%) no cultivo de café consorciado e uma redução de 16% e 48% nos valores do saldo de radiação e velocidade do vento, em relação ao cultivo a pleno sol. Com relação à temperatura e umidade do ar, foram encontradas diferenças apenas na temperatura máxima no ponto central da parcela do cultivo consorciado, que apresentou médias superiores em relação ao cultivo a pleno sol no verão e outono, e em relação ao ponto situado próximo as bananeiras na primavera, verão e outono. Nos episódios de resfriamento do ar no período noturno, apesar do cultivo consorciado apresentar menor perda radiativa, ocorreu apenas um acréscimo de 0,3ºC na temperatura do ar nos episódios amostrados, sendo que para a temperatura das folhas esses valores atingiram até 0,5ºC. Foi verificado ainda que a ação de quebra-vento das bananeiras no cultivo consorciado, promoveu alterações nos perfis de temperatura e umidade do ar, apresentando gradientes reduzidos, em relação ao cultivo a pleno sol, acima do dossel dos cafeeiros. Os valores médios dos componentes do balanço de energia nos sistemas de cultivos de café a pleno sol e consorciado não apresentaram diferenças. Nos sistemas de cultivo avaliados, o crescimento vegetativo em altura e diâmetro apresentou maior atividade vegetativa no período primavera-verão em relação ao período outono-inverno, não tendo sido encontradas diferenças significativas das taxas de crescimento, de desenvolvimento fenológico e dos índices de produção entre os cultivos. No cultivo consorciado, o ponto amostral próximo às bananeiras apresentou diferenças em relação aos demais pontos amostrados no crescimento vegetativo e desenvolvimento fenológico para algumas épocas do ano, além de apresentar menor produção por planta e maior massa de 100 sementes. / A study was carried out in coffee crop (Coffea arabica L.) cv. Icatu Vermelho IAC 4045, unshade and shaded by banana ‘Prata An㒠(Musa AAB), in Mococa, São Paulo State, Brazil (Latitude South 21º 28 ', Longitude West 47º 01 ', altitude 665m). The microclimatic measurements (solar radiation, net radiation, wind speed, air temperature and air moisture) were taken from October, 2001 to September, 2002 under different crops conditions. During the winter of 2002 and 2003, a study of the influence of the banana plants was done on space variability of air and leaf temperature, besides net radiation, for cold nights. The aerodynamic and energy characterization were done from December, 2002 to November,2003, by obtining the profiles of the bulb wet and dry air temperature, also measurements the wind speed in seven different levels. From July, 2001 to June, 2004 phenological data for the coffee crops were taken. The growth of the plants concerning height and diameter was also evaluated. The harvests of 2002, 2003 and 2004 were appraised by the production parameters, and their variability for different positions in shaded coffee crop. The banana trees reduced the incoming solar radiation to the coffee crop by 21%, and by 16% and 48% in the values of the net radiation and wind speed, respectively. Concerning on air temperature and air mosture, differences were found just for the maximum air temperature at the central point of the shaded crop, showing higher averages in relation to the unshaded crop during the summer and autumn, and also in relation to the nearest point to the banana plants during the spring, summer and autumn. During cold nights, spite the shaded coffee crop showing smaller radiation loss, an increment of 0.3ºC in the air temperature was observed and for the leaves the values reached 0.5ºC. It was verified an windbreak action of fanlight of the banana trees in the shaded crop, promoting deviation in air temperature and humidity profiles, showing reduced gradients, in relation to the unshaded crop, above the coffee plants canopy. The mean values of the energy balance components for the different systems of cultivation did not show difference. In the cultivation systems evaluated, the vegetative growth in height and diameter showed higher vegetative activity during the spring-summer period in relation to the autumn-winter period. No significant differences of the growth taxes, of phenological development and of the yield indexes were found. In coffee crop shaded, the nearest point to the banana plants showed differences in relation to the other amostral points in vegetative growth and phenological development for some seasons of the year, besides showing smaller plant yield and higher weight of 100 seeds.

A primeira parte deste trabalho consistiu na instalação de pluviógrafos e linígrafos e levantamento de eventos hidrológicos com a obtenção de dados da distribuição espacial de precipitações observadas e hidrogramas resultantes. Experimentos de infiltração de água no solo foram realizados a partir de infiltrômetro de disco a fim de caracterizar a variabilidade espacial da condutividade hidráulica na bacia, obtendo-se dois conjuntos de dados que mostraram ser lognormalmente distribuídos com médias iguais a 15,8 mm/h e 5,47 mm/h. Estudo teórico foi conduzido na segunda parte do trabalho compreendendo o desenvolvimento de modelo hidrológico. A concepção do modelo parte da premissa de que toda a área da bacia possa ser representada por células derivadas de um modelo numérico de terreno (MNT), especificando-se em cada célula o equacionamento hidráulico-hidrológico. As heterogeneidades do solo e da precipitação foram estudadas através de simulação do modelo considerando-se distribuições espaciais diferentes para a condutividade hidráulica saturada e eventos de chuva. Os resultados mostraram que as diferenças entre as vazões de pico podem ser maiores que 100% , considerando-se graus de resolução máximo e mínimo quanto à precipitação, e reafirmaram o consenso de que o conhecimento da distribuição espacial da chuva é fundamental na calibração de modelos hidrológicos distribuídos. / In first part of this work consists on the installation of pluviographic, water-height graphs and surveying of hydrological events with obtained data from spatial distribution of precipitation observed and resultant hydrograms. Experiments of water infiltration in the soil were done by an infiltrometer disc to characterize the spatial variability of hydraulic conductivity and the losses of infiltration in the basin obtaining two sets of data that showed to be lognormally distributed in average equal to 15.8 mm/h and 5.47 mm/h. A theoric study was conduced in the second part of work comprehending the development of hydrologic model distributed. The conception of the model proceed from the premise that allbasin area can be represented by cells derived from a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) specifying in each cell the hydraulic equation - hydrologic. The soil heterogeneity and the precipitation were studied by model simulation considering spatial distributions different to the hydraulic conductivity satured of the soil and to pluvial events. The results pointed out the differences among peak outflow can be more than 100% considering minimum and maximumresolution degrees as the precipitation and affirmed the consensus that the acquaintance of the pluvial spatial distribution is fundamental in the adjustment of hydrologic models distributed.

Für die ortsspezifische Düngung spielt die räumliche Erfassung von ertragsrelevanten Standorteigenschaften (z.B. Textur und Nährstoffnachlieferungsvermögen) eine große Rolle bei der Bemessung der Düngungsempfehlung. Durch die Berücksichtigung der schlaginternen Variabilität ist eine abgestufte standortangepasste Bewirtschaftung möglich. Auf fünf ackerbaulich genutzten Schlägen in verschiedenen Bodenregionen Deutschlands wurden räumliche und zeitliche Untersuchungen zur vertikalen und horizontalen Mineralstickstoffverteilung in Rasterform durchgeführt. Mit Hilfe des N-Modells HERMES wurden Simulationsrechnungen zur N-Dynamik durchgeführt und anhand des volumetrischen Wassergehalts, des Ertrags und des mineralischen Stickstoffgehalts überprüft. Als Referenz dienten die Daten aus der Rasterbeprobung. Die Vergleiche zwischen den simulierten und gemessenen Werten zeigen beim volumetrischen Wassergehalt, beim Ertrag und beim mineralischen Stickstoff auch über mehrere Vegetationsperioden hinweg eine gute Übereinstimmung bei den Mittelwerten, so dass man die Modellergebnisse auch für die N-Düngungsempfehlung herangezogen hat. Datensätze der Reichsbodenschätzung und der digitalen Hofbodenkarte wiesen im Gegensatz zur kleinräu­migen Rasterbeprobung keine ausreichende Genauigkeit bei den räumlichen Verteilungsmustern der ertragsrelevanten Standortgrößen auf und sind demnach nicht als Planungsgrundlage für die ortsspezifische Düngung geeignet. Über Szenariorechnungen lassen sich verschiedene Düngungsvarianten (wie einheitlich und ortsspezifisch gedüngte Variante) für identische Flächen direkt miteinander vergleichen. Die Ergebnisse zeigten beim Einsatz des preagro-N Moduls über drei Vegetationsperioden (2000 bis 2002) ein Einsparungspotential bei der ortsspezifischen Düngung von durchschnittlich 4 %, bei Verwendung der Modellempfehlungen (HERMES) sogar von durchschnittlich 18 % gegenüber der einheitlichen Variante ohne Ertragsdepressionen beführten zu müssen. / For the site-specific fertilization plays the spatial variability of soil parameters (such as texture) an important role for the calculation of fertilizer recommendation. In consideration of spatial variability is a gradual management in the field possible. The distribution of the vertical and horizontal soil mineral nitrogen patterns on five fields were investigated in different regions in Germany. Additionally these data were used for the validation of the nitrogen dynamics of the nitrogen crop growth model HERMES. The comparison between simulate and measurement data showed for the soil moisture, the grain yield and the mineral nitrogen over many vegetation periods good results by the average values. Under this situation is it possible to use simulation model for the nitrogen fertilizer recommendation. Simulations with data sets from the plot sampling (large scale soil map) compared against simulating using German Soil Appraisal or digital farm soil map data showed information losses. The temporal dynamic by soil mineral nitrogen content in the rooting zone and the spatial pattern by the grain yield show a much better agreement with observed values, if large scale data were used for the simulation. The results from the preagro-N model showed at site-specific part over three vegetation periods (2000 to 2002) an economize effect from average 4 % against the uniform fertilisation part. If we had used the fertilizer recommendation from the nitrogen crop growth model HERMES over the same time, the economize effect conducted average 18 % against the uniform fertilisation part without yield depression.