2 pp. / RainScapes are the ultimate in water efficient landscaping. RainScapes are beautiful landscapes that once established rely entirely on rain and stormwater (gray water too if available)while preserving tap water for indoor and drinking water needs.

Vattenbrist blir allt vanligare i vårt samhälle och belastningen på vattenresurser och dricksvattensystemen ökar, även i Sverige. Det finns stora möjligheter att ersätta användningen av dricksvatten med vatten av lägre kvalitet för vissa ändamål, till exempel vid toalettspolning och bevattning. Att samla upp och använda dagvatten från tak och andra hårdgjorda ytor kan vara ett steg emot att använda mindre volymer dricksvatten. Många faktorer måste dock beaktas när ett sådant system ska implementeras. Vid sådana tillfällen kan en multikriterieanalys utföras. Water Investments for Sustainability Enhancement and Reliability (WISER) är ett Excel-baserat beslutsverktyg som är utvecklat för att underlätta transparent beslutsfattande kring dricksvattensystem och är baserat på multikriterieanalys. Detta arbete utvärderade möjligheterna att använda regn- och dagvatten som komplement till dricksvatten. Frågeställningarna undersökte vilka typsystem som finns för regn- och dagvattenåtervinning samt vilka hållbarhetskriterier (tekniska, sociala, miljömässiga och ekonomiska) som är lämpliga för att utvärdera dessa system som ett alternativ till dricksvattenanvändning. Beslutsverktyget WISER testades även i samarbete med en lokal VA-organisation på ett nytt exploateringsområde i Kistinge industriområde.   Metoden var en litteraturstudie och tillämpning av WISER i fallstudien. Två workshops anordnades där lokala intressenter från Laholmsbuktens VA och Halmstads kommun deltog. Där valdes kriterier för att bedöma fyra alternativa regn- och dagvattenåtervinningssystem: fastighetsnära insamling av regnvatten från tak med enskild eller gemensam magasinering, samt ett storskaligt system som samlar i regn- och dagvatten i dagvattendammar med enkel eller avancerad rening.   Resultatet visade att typsystem för regn- och dagvattenåtervinning varierar i komplexitet, men består vanligtvis av en uppsamlingsyta, magasinering, grovfilter och pumpar. Potentiella kriterier att använda vid utförande av en multikriterieanalys för regn- och dagvattensystem utvecklades och tillämpades i fallstudien. Resultatet visade att WISER var användbart som beslutsstöd för regn- och dagvattenåtervinning. För Kistinge industriområde var de mindre regnåtervinningssystemen som hade tak som uppsamlingsyta att föredra framför ett storskaligt system som samlar in både regn- och dagvatten. Alla system presterade dock på liknande nivå som att använda dricksvatten i stället, vilket tyder på att regnvattenåtervinning med dessa system inte nödvändigtvis innebär en hållbarhetsmässig fördel. / Today, problems caused by water shortages are increasing in frequency and magnitude even in Sweden. However, there are great opportunities to replace the use of potable water with water of a lower quality, for example when flushing toilets and irrigation. Collecting and recycling stormwater from roofs and other hardened surfaces can be a step towards using less potable water. There are multiple factors that need to be considered when implementing such a system, and a way to oversee the different perspectives is by doing a multi-criteria analysis (MCA). This is a common decision support method when analyzing complex problems. Water Investments for Sustainability Enhancement and Reliability (WISER) is a multi-criteria analysis decision tool that was developed to facilitate transparent decision-making regarding drinking water systems. The aim of this project was to apply and evaluate WISER to analyze various aspects of using stormwater as a supplement to potable water. The main questions in this report included what types of systems are available for stormwater recycling. Moreover, what sustainability criteria (technical, social, environmental, and economic) are appropriate to use to evaluate those systems as an alternative to drinking water use? The decision tool WISER was also applied to see if it can be used to determine whether implementing a stormwater system is a sustainable alternative. The case study was an industrial area called Kistinge in the Southwest of Sweden.   The method was based on a literature study and applying the WISER tool in the case study. Two workshops were organized where local stakeholders from the municipality in Halmstad and the local water and wastewater organization LBVA participated in the selection of relevant criteria for the case study and to assess four alternative stormwater recycling systems in WISER: local or centralized collection from roofs, and centralized collection with and without advanced treatment. Calculations were also made to assess drinking water savings, based on local precipitation data and assumptions regarding collection areas and system designs. The result of the study showed that the available stormwater systems and their area of use vary. Most common type of stormwater recycling systems include a collection area, pipes and storage, a filter, and a pump. Potential criteria to use in a multi-criteria analysis for stormwater recycling systems were developed and evaluated on the case study. The results from the MCA showed that for this industrial area, the small stormwater recycling systems using roofs as the collection area were preferable over bigger systems which managed stormwater from the whole industrial area. However, all systems received a similar index compared to using potable water instead, indicating a weak sustainability performance.

Sustainable Built Environments Senior Capstone Project / Porous concrete pavements have been used in the eastern United States to effectively manage storm water when used as an alternative to impervious surfaces. This paper reviewed a wide body of available literature and research to examine their potential to reduce runoff at the University of Arizona. This study found that their unique structural properties enable them to infiltrate and detain large volumes of water in a stone sub-base below the slab, filtering out many street related contaminants without the need to install additional infrastructure. Porous concrete surfaces may support green development in the southwest where water is both a sensitive and valuable resource. However, long-term structural durability, clogging potential due to dust, and maintenance requirements have yet to be fully understood in this region. This paper then summarizes critical factors that affect the performance of porous concrete and proposes a framework for future study to be conducted by the University of Arizona in a way that would reduce runoff to major campus roads, contribute to a better understanding of sustainable storm water management in the southwest, and demonstrate leadership in environmental stewardship.

The quantity of stormwater runoff from the city of Adelaide almost matches the demand for drinking water. It therefore becomes increasingly important as an alternative source for water supply. This research focused at the Parafield Stormwater Harvesting Facility near Adelaide in order to better understand: (1) nutrient dynamics between the water column, sediments and plant community, (2) allochthonous and autochthonous sources of nutrients and (3) nutrient retention capacity of the reed bed. A weekly monitoring programme for the physical and chemical parameters of the water column, sediment and plant community was carried out over three years for specific locations within the reed bed. Ordination and clustering of the time series data revealed distinctive seasonal and spatial nutrient patterns. The concentrations for total nitrogen (TN) showed high concentrations for the summer period (1.04 to 1.86 mg/L) and low concentration for the winter season (0.25 to 0.46 mg/L). For the other nitrogen fractions in form of nitrate (NO₃⁻) and ammonium (NH₄⁺) the seasonal patterns were different to that of TN. In NO₃⁻ the concentrations were high during the summer and winter seasons and NH₄⁺ showed high concentration during the spring. The seasonality for total phosphorus (TP) showed high concentration for the spring period (0.049 to 0.163 mg/L) and low concentration for the other seasons (0.01 to 0.019 mg/L). A similar pattern has been observed for phosphate (PO₄³ ⁻) as well. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations showed high concentrations during the summer period (21.36 to 31.64 mg/L) and low concentration during the winter seasons (5.48 to 7.14 mg/L). The seasonal pattern for the nutrient contents of the plant community showed highest concentrations during summer (5.5 to 34.2 gTN/kg) and lowest concentrations in winter (0.2 to 7.7 gTN/kg). Nutrient concentrations in the sediments were highest during the non-growing seasons (autumn and winter). This result indicated that the function of sediments changes seasonally from being a sink during the non-growing season by accumulating both allochthonous and autochthonous nutrients in the rainy season, and becoming a source during the growing seasons due to nutrient release from anaerobic sediments supporting the growth of the macrophyte community. Overall the function of sediment in reed bed pond of the Stormwater Harvesting Facility was to be a source of nutrients and therefore no accumulation of nutrients occurred during the study period. The research has demonstrated that the reed bed currently performs as a reasonable nutrient retention system with following nutrient removal rates: 0.85 mg TN /m²/day, 0.79 mg NO₃⁻ /m²/day, 0.28 mg NH₄⁺/m²/day, 0.05 mg TP /m²/day, 0.04 mg PO₄³ ⁻ /m²/day, and 5.75 mg DOC /m²/day. Seasonal difference in the water retention time showed that the for most of the nutrients the removal performance was most effective during autumn and winter with the exception of the removal performance of P forms, which most effective during spring and summer. For TN, NO₃⁻ and DOC the RE was most efficient at a residence time > 15days, for TP and PO₄³ ⁻ it is 5-10 days and for NH₄⁺ it is <;5days. Time–series modelling of the monitoring data resulted in rule-based prediction models for the different nutrients. Sensitivity analyses of the models revealed key driving variables for the nutrient dynamics of the reed bed. The prediction results revealed that the DO was the key driving variable influencing the nutrient concentrations in the water column and therefore to improve the water quality of the treatment water DO levels have to maintained above the threshold of 4 mg/L. Beside DO other key driving variables were turbidity, ORP and the nutrient levels from the previous site. Therefore the control of these parameters would be the start to develop a management plan for best-practice management in terms of water quality at the Parafield Stormwater Harvesting Facility. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1458926 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Science, 2010

Water is precious, particularly in South Australia, the driest State in Australia, with over 80% of its land area receiving less than 250mm of rainfall per year. Security of water supply has always played a critical role in the economic and social development of South Australia, and will continue to do so while dependency on water from the River Murray is so high and there is competition over this from states and for different uses – municipal, irrigation, industry, and the environment. The drive towards sustainable development has evolved to attenuate overconsumption of the world’s natural resources of which water is a key element. Provision of reliable water supplies to regional South Australia has always presented challenges, given the vast distances involved and the limited number of natural water sources. Despite these, a majority of South Australians enjoy the benefit of a reliable and safe water supply, adequate waste disposal system, good community health and high standard of living. A challenge remains to determine the sustainability of current major water pipe transfer systems from remote resources to small communities. There may be scope for managing existing water supplies more effectively and further developing local water harvesting and reuse solutions to minimise the need for more significant infrastructure investment. This study investigates the challenges and opportunities for extending development of non-potable (secondary) water supply schemes in South Australian towns. These schemes will conserve the State’s freshwater resources. The primary focus of this study is harnessing stormwater runoff and treated effluent generated by normal township development to supplement higher quality public water for uses such as irrigation of public areas and sporting fields in country areas. Water harvesting and reuse is not likely to occur due to some technological breakthrough but through application of known technology and the adoption of water conscious ethics by society. However, it is a sensible reality for the South Australian climate, particularly when coupled with appropriate conservation and suitable landscaping practices. Thus, the major theme of this study is information sharing since if people are familiar with and understand the concepts then more communities may be encouraged to develop their resources. Water reuse has proven to be a beneficial strategy for addressing stormwater runoff and wastewater disposal problems and alleviating localised water supply problems for several South Australian towns and communities. The existing projects demonstrate both the strong community-based and innovative approach to water resources management in this state. They are inherently simple in form, and can often be assembled with readily available materials by people with a basic understanding of plumbing and construction skills (locally available). The potential for localised water harvesting and reuse in South Australian towns is generally limited to single purpose communal non-potable systems. Further, it is likely to only be sustainable in rural communities willing to make a commitment to its long term, proper operation and maintenance, or they could endanger public health. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1283773 / Thesis (M.Eng.Sc.) - University of Adelaide, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2007

The quantity of stormwater runoff from the city of Adelaide almost matches the demand for drinking water. It therefore becomes increasingly important as an alternative source for water supply. This research focused at the Parafield Stormwater Harvesting Facility near Adelaide in order to better understand: (1) nutrient dynamics between the water column, sediments and plant community, (2) allochthonous and autochthonous sources of nutrients and (3) nutrient retention capacity of the reed bed. A weekly monitoring programme for the physical and chemical parameters of the water column, sediment and plant community was carried out over three years for specific locations within the reed bed. Ordination and clustering of the time series data revealed distinctive seasonal and spatial nutrient patterns. The concentrations for total nitrogen (TN) showed high concentrations for the summer period (1.04 to 1.86 mg/L) and low concentration for the winter season (0.25 to 0.46 mg/L). For the other nitrogen fractions in form of nitrate (NO₃⁻) and ammonium (NH₄⁺) the seasonal patterns were different to that of TN. In NO₃⁻ the concentrations were high during the summer and winter seasons and NH₄⁺ showed high concentration during the spring. The seasonality for total phosphorus (TP) showed high concentration for the spring period (0.049 to 0.163 mg/L) and low concentration for the other seasons (0.01 to 0.019 mg/L). A similar pattern has been observed for phosphate (PO₄³ ⁻) as well. The dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations showed high concentrations during the summer period (21.36 to 31.64 mg/L) and low concentration during the winter seasons (5.48 to 7.14 mg/L). The seasonal pattern for the nutrient contents of the plant community showed highest concentrations during summer (5.5 to 34.2 gTN/kg) and lowest concentrations in winter (0.2 to 7.7 gTN/kg). Nutrient concentrations in the sediments were highest during the non-growing seasons (autumn and winter). This result indicated that the function of sediments changes seasonally from being a sink during the non-growing season by accumulating both allochthonous and autochthonous nutrients in the rainy season, and becoming a source during the growing seasons due to nutrient release from anaerobic sediments supporting the growth of the macrophyte community. Overall the function of sediment in reed bed pond of the Stormwater Harvesting Facility was to be a source of nutrients and therefore no accumulation of nutrients occurred during the study period. The research has demonstrated that the reed bed currently performs as a reasonable nutrient retention system with following nutrient removal rates: 0.85 mg TN /m²/day, 0.79 mg NO₃⁻ /m²/day, 0.28 mg NH₄⁺/m²/day, 0.05 mg TP /m²/day, 0.04 mg PO₄³ ⁻ /m²/day, and 5.75 mg DOC /m²/day. Seasonal difference in the water retention time showed that the for most of the nutrients the removal performance was most effective during autumn and winter with the exception of the removal performance of P forms, which most effective during spring and summer. For TN, NO₃⁻ and DOC the RE was most efficient at a residence time > 15days, for TP and PO₄³ ⁻ it is 5-10 days and for NH₄⁺ it is <;5days. Time–series modelling of the monitoring data resulted in rule-based prediction models for the different nutrients. Sensitivity analyses of the models revealed key driving variables for the nutrient dynamics of the reed bed. The prediction results revealed that the DO was the key driving variable influencing the nutrient concentrations in the water column and therefore to improve the water quality of the treatment water DO levels have to maintained above the threshold of 4 mg/L. Beside DO other key driving variables were turbidity, ORP and the nutrient levels from the previous site. Therefore the control of these parameters would be the start to develop a management plan for best-practice management in terms of water quality at the Parafield Stormwater Harvesting Facility. / http://proxy.library.adelaide.edu.au/login?url= http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1458926 / Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Science, 2010

Som följd av den pågående urbaniseringen har de naturliga förutsättningarna för regn och smältvattnet att infiltrera i marken och återgå till sitt kretslopp på naturlig väg försvunnit i städerna. I Stockholm leds ungefär hälften av dagvattnet via VA-nätet direkt och orenat till reningsverken. Dagvattenflödet varierar kraftigt vilket orsakar toppar som överbelastar VAnätet  och är svåra för reningsverken att hantera. Istället för att ledas ut i VA-nätet ska dagvatten strävas efter att hanteras lokalt. Arbetet lägger fokus på dagvattenhanteringen för takparken på ett nybyggnadsprojekt i Stockholm, projektet PARK 1. Projektet ritas av White arkitekter och ska certifieras enligt BREEAM och där nå den högsta klassningen Outstanding. Hållbar användning av mark och vatten är därför en av de viktiga frågorna i detta projekt. Syftet med arbetet är att omarbeta ett gestaltningsförslag av PARK1´s takpark samt att presentera lösningar för dess dagvattenhantering. Detta utförs med hänsyn till framtida klimatförändringar och byggnadens vattenkretslopp samt samordning och tillgänglighet. Arbetet utförs främst genom litteraturstudier, men har också kompletterats genom samtal, diskussioner och studiebesök. AutoCAD, SketchUp och Photoshop används för att illustera den planerade parken samt dess växter, funktioner och konstruktionslösningar. Dimensioneringen av brunnar och stammar görs med hänsyn till 100-årsregn för att klara framtida klimatförändringar. Med hjälp av nederbördsstatistik beräknas sannolik nederbörd för parken, denna mängd motsvara det dagvatten som ska hanteras lokalt. Avrinningsytan går från att vara en parkeringsplats där allt dagvatten belastar VA-nätet till att bli en takpark där dagvattnet utnyttjas till bevattning och 25 procent av byggnadens WCspolning. Dagvattnet blir direkt på platsen omvandlat till spillvatten och som följd blir tillförseln till vatten- och avloppsnätet från byggnaden jämn och stabil och färskvattenförbrukningen sänks. / As a result of ongoing urbanization, natural conditions for rain and meltwater to infiltrate in the ground and regress to the natural water cycle have disappeared in cities. About half of the stormwater in Stockholm is transported through the municipal water sewerage system directly to sewage treatment works. The flow of stormwater varies vigorously, causing flow peaks that overburden the system and treatment works. The aim should be to handle and use the stormwater locally instead of releasing it to the system. The focus of this bachelor thesis is how stormwater from a soon to be built construction project in Stockholm can be handled. The project, PARK 1, is designed by the architectural  firm White Arkitekter and is set to be BREEAM certified and to reach the classification outstanding. Therefore, sustainable use of land and water resources is one of the key matters in the project. The purpose of the study is to rework a existing design proposal for the rooftop garden planed on PARK1 and present solutions for stormwater usage. Consideration must be taken to future climate changes, coordination among disciplines and accessibility. The work was conducted mainly through literature studies and complemented by discussions and site visits to reference projects. AutoCAD, SketchUp and Photoshop were used to illustrate plans and details of the park proposal with its plantations, activities and technical solutions. Estimations of the quantity of roof outlets and dimensions of vertical downpipes were made for 100-year rain conditions. Through quantitative analysis of precipitation statistics the expected precipitation were calculated. Which after runoff covers the irrigation needs of the  park and 25 percent of the water needed for flushing of the buildings WC:s. The runoff surface is altered from being a parking lot where all stormwater ends up in the municipal water sewerage, to a rooftop garden where all of the stormwater is handled locally. This allows stormwater to be transformed into wastewater on sight, thereby contributing to a steady flow in sewer pipes in addition to help lower the buildings fresh water consumption.

Stormwater runoff from highways is a source of pollution to surface water bodies and groundwater. This project develops a bio-detention treatment and harvesting system that is incorporated into roadside swales. The bio-detention system uses Bold & Gold™, a type of biosorption activated media (BAM), to remove nutrients from simulated highway runoff and then store the water in underground vaults for infiltration, controlled discharge, and/or irrigation and other non-potable applications. In order to design a bio-detention system, media characteristics and media/water quality relationships are required. Media characteristics determined through testing include: specific gravity, permeability, infiltration, maximum dry density, moisture content of maximum dry density, and particle-size distribution. One of the goals of this experiment is to compare the nitrogen and phosphorous species concentrations in the effluent of BAM to sandy soil for simulated highway runoff. Field scale experiments are done on an elevated test bed that simulates a typical roadway with a swale. The swale portion of the test bed is split into halves using BAM and sandy soil. The simulated stormwater flows over a concrete section, which simulates a roadway, and then over either sod covered sandy soil or BAM. One, one and a half, and three inch storms are each simulated three times with a duration of 30 minutes each. During the simulated storm event, initial samples of the runoff (influent) are taken. The test bed is allowed to drain for two hours after the rainfall event and then samples of each of the net effluents are taken. In addition to the field scale water quality testing, column tests are also preformed on the sandy soil and Bold & Gold™ without sod present. Sod farms typically use fertilizer to increase production, thus it is reasonable to assume that the sod will leach nutrients into the soils on the iv test bed, especially during the initial test runs. The purpose of the column tests is to obtain a general idea of what percentage removals of total phosphorus and total nitrogen are obtained by the sandy soil and Bold & Gold™. It is shown that the Bold & Gold™ media effluent has significantly lower concentrations of total nitrogen and total phosphorus compared to the effluent of the sandy soil based on an 80% confidence level. The Bold & Gold™ has a 41% lower average effluent concentration of total nitrogen than the sandy soil. The Bold & Gold™ media has a 78% lower average effluent concentration of total phosphorus than the sandy soil. Using both the column test data in combination with the field scale data, it is determined that the Bold & Gold™ BAM system has a total phosphorus removal efficiency of 71%. The removal efficiency is increased when stormwater harvesting is considered. A total phosphorus reduction of 94% is achieved in the bio-detention & harvesting swale system sample design problem

Cape Town, South Africa, falls within a winter rainfall region, making it difficult to assess the feasibility of rain- and stormwater harvesting. The reason for this is because the region’s high water demand period coincides with the low rainfall summer season, thereby limiting the availability of this alternative water resource when most needed. During this study, rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing purposes, collected from roof surfaces, was practically assessed by means of inserted flow meters at a pilot study site in Kommetjie, Cape Town. The combined and single system roof- and land surface runoff yields and savings of commercial buildings within the Kommetjie business area, were also theoretically assessed by making use of a mathematical roof- and land surface runoff model specifically developed during this study. The statistical testing of the hypotheses statements relating to the pre- and post-harvesting savings at the pilot study building, compared against the average actual municipal water usage, were performed. Hypotheses testing were also performed in order to compare the theoretical rain- and stormwater runoff yields for the commercial business area against the average actual municipal water consumption. The conclusions drawn from this study indicated that valuable potable water, as well as related financial savings, can be achieved within a winter rainfall region, thereby making rain- and stormwater harvesting a feasible option for commercial businesses in Cape Town. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)

Cape Town, South Africa, falls within a winter rainfall region, making it difficult to assess the feasibility of rain- and stormwater harvesting. The reason for this is because the region’s high water demand period coincides with the low rainfall summer season, thereby limiting the availability of this alternative water resource when most needed. During this study, rainwater harvesting for toilet flushing purposes, collected from roof surfaces, was practically assessed by means of inserted flow meters at a pilot study site in Kommetjie, Cape Town. The combined and single system roof- and land surface runoff yields and savings of commercial buildings within the Kommetjie business area, were also theoretically assessed by making use of a mathematical roof- and land surface runoff model specifically developed during this study. The statistical testing of the hypotheses statements relating to the pre- and post-harvesting savings at the pilot study building, compared against the average actual municipal water usage, were performed. Hypotheses testing were also performed in order to compare the theoretical rain- and stormwater runoff yields for the commercial business area against the average actual municipal water consumption. The conclusions drawn from this study indicated that valuable potable water, as well as related financial savings, can be achieved within a winter rainfall region, thereby making rain- and stormwater harvesting a feasible option for commercial businesses in Cape Town. / Environmental Sciences / M.Sc. (Environmental Management)