Grazing lands in Eritrea are degraded due to decades of overstocking and consequent overgrazing. Since the rangelands are accessible to entire village communities, organisation and coordinated decision making regarding the management of these resources is not often achieved. Farmers are not motivated enough to make investments to improve a communally owned resource due to the prevailing common access grazing systems. A field survey was undertaken interviewing 12 farmers in the private access commercial and 80 farmers in the common access subsistence grazing using face to face interviews in the Barka and Arado cattle farming communities in four out of the six regions in Eritrea. Debub, Gash-Barka, S. Keih Bahri and Maekel regions were selected using stratified and simple random sampling methods. The regions were chosen based on various agroecological zones where the representatives of different grass species and the two most common cattle breeds in Eritrea (Arado and Barka) are found. The survey included the collection of data on village and household characteristics focusing on rangeland grazing management systems and additional sources of supplementary forage. The study uses several stages of analysis like principal component analysis accompanied by regression analysis together with descriptive statistics and ordination diagram. The commercial farmers addressed grazing constraints by investing in improved grazing through planting 258 ha per farmer of drought resistant seeds and 1767 vs. 8 cactus slices per farmer and covered 75% vs. 40% of forage requirements from grazing resources compared to the subsistence farmers, respectively, during 2002. These results were achieved because 78% of the commercial farmers adopted controlled stocking rates. In common access grazing, the costs of collective action to control cattle stocking rates are high, making imple mentation of stocking rate controls difficult. As a consequence, 65% of the subsistence farmers were forced to migrate their cattle looking for grazing forage in the dry season during the year. The outcomes of migration were evidenced by the results of severe overgrazing and degradation on the rangelands proximity to villages in Debub and Maekel regions and the populated area of Gash_Barka region. The increased number of animals resulting in high grazing pressure was the consequence of migration. Ten vs. six percent of mortality rates was reported for the subsistence systems compared to the commercial systems respectively. The lower results of milk yield, calving rates and off- take rate productivity indicated in the different stages of analysis for the subsistence farmers were the consequences of the lack of the adoption of controlled stocking rates primarily constrained by the migration. The Barka and Arado cattle farming systems are kept under common access grazing systems. Compared to the Arado cattle farming, the Barka cattle farming region had relatively better access to grazing forage. The better quality of grazing in this region is attributed to a naturally low stock density in the region. During 2002, the Barka cattle farming had 1087 vs. 721 Lit of milk yield, 63% vs. 53% of calving productivity and 9.3% vs. 10.9% of mortality rates than the Arado cattle farming regions respectively, due to access to a wider area of grazing lands and more labour inputs. The Barka cattle area farmers are agro pastoralists and usually focus on grazing dairy cattle farming than crop farming. They increased calving rate productivity and decreased mortality rates by increasing the proportion of lactating cows and decreasing the proportion of oxen compared to the Arado cattle farming. The Arado cattle farming had higher offtake rates and income from cattle sales compared to the Barka cattle farming region. The higher off- take rate, which is an index of percentage of cattle sold, for the Arado cattle was probably linked to the shortage of grazing forage and increased herding costs. The Barka and Arado cattle farmers had a shortage of quality and quantity crop residue winter forage during 2002. Farmers were dependent only on rain fed cropping. The application of crop rotation, fallow and chemical fertilizers were low to enhance soil nutrients. Out of the total crop residues forage produced, only 22% and 15% of legumes residue DM forage was produced for the Barka and Arado cattle farmers respectively. Agro- industrial and crop farming by-products supplementary feeds were also limited due to the shortage of feeds in the country during the year. In general, government intervention is important to bring institutional changes to promote the adoption of controlled stocking rates to alleviate the shortage of grazing forage. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

The broad objective of the study was to determine the effects of restricted water intake on the growth, blood chemistry and meat quality characteristics of indigenous chickens in semi arid environments. A total of 15 flocks in communal villages and 12 flocks in resettlement schemes of Msinga District in South Africa were monitored for 30 months to determine the effects of production system and season on flock size, dynamics and constraints faced by indigenous chicken producers. As a follow up, 281 and 233 chicks hatched in November 2011 from 18 and 9 households in communal villages and resettlement schemes, respectively were monitored using a structured checklist to determine survival and causes of mortality from hatching up to 12 weeks of age. Kaplan-Meier survival distributions and the odds ratios for effects of potential risk factors were determined using survival analysis and logistic regression models, respectively. Flock composition and structure were significantly affected by production system and month. Farmers in resettlement schemes had approximately one cock and three hens more (P < 0.05) than those in communal villages. The number of growers and chicks were similar (P > 0.05) between the two production systems but chicks were the predominant age group (38 %) of each flock. The cock to hen ratio in households in communal villages was 1:3.5, while that in resettlement schemes was 1:3.7, suggesting that inbreeding might have been reducing flock productivity. Flock sizes in communal villages peaked in March (45.1 ± 3.02) during the post rainy season and declined steadily to a low of 34.7 ± 3.63 in September during the hot-dry season. The largest flock sizes in resettlement schemes were observed in January (52.4 ± 5.09) during the hot-wet season and the smallest in August (36.1 ± 5.98) during the cold- dry season. Households in communal villages had more chicks (P < 0.05) than cocks, hens and growers throughout the year except in June when the number of growers was equal to that of chicks. In resettlement schemes, the number of chicks was lower (P < 0.05) than the number of hens and growers, except in June and July when it was equal to that of growers. Total entries were not affected (P > 0.05) by production system. Hatched chicks were the major mode of entry, accounting for more than 97 % of entries into flocks. The contribution of purchases, gifts and exchanges was negligible. Mortality was the main cause of exits from flocks, accounting for 70 and 63 % of total exits among households in communal villages and resettlement schemes, respectively. The major causes of mortality were aerial predators, sub-optimalnutrition and inclement weather conditions, which were similar between production systems. The number of birds that exited flocks through slaughter for household consumption was higher (P < 0.05) among households in resettlement (34% of total exits) than communal villages (21 % of total exits). The proportion of chickens exiting flocks through sales was higher in communal (9 %) than resettlement (4.3 %) households. Chick survival from hatching to 12 weeks was higher (P < 0.05) in communal villages (55 ± 3.14 %) than in resettlement schemes (41 ± 4.19 %). Mean chick survival time did not differ (P > 0.05) between communal (56 ± 3.30 days) and resettlement (49 ± 3.23 days) flocks. Provision of water ad libitum and treatment of sick birds were important covariates in prolonging the survival time of chicks. The effects of restricted water intake on growth performance, blood chemistry, physicochemical properties, and sensory characteristics of meat from Naked Neck (NNK) and Ovambo (OVB) chickens were also assessed. In the experiment, 54 pullets of each strain with an average weight of 641± 10g per bird were randomly assigned to three water restriction levels for 60 days in a completely randomized design. The treatments were ad libitum, 70% of ad libitum and 40% of ad libitum water intake. Each treatment group was replicated three times. The pectoralis (breast) muscle was sampled for meat quality, fatty acid composition and sensory quality analyses. Ovambo chickens had superior body-weight at 16 weeks of age, average daily gains (ADG) and average daily water intake (ADWI) than NNK chickens. Body weight of birds at 16 weeks of age, ADG, average daily feed intake (ADFI), ADWI and water to feed ratio (WFR) declined progressively (P < 0.05) with increasing severity of water restriction, while food conversion ratio (FCR) values increased (P < 0.05) as the severity of water restriction increased. Naked Neck chickens had better FCR at the 40 % of ad libitum water intake level than OVB chickens. The dressing percentage per bird was higher (P<0.05) in water-restricted birds than those on ad libitum water consumption, irrespective of strain. Heart weight was significantly lower in birds on 40% of ad libitum water intake than those on ad libitum and 70% of ad libitum water intake, respectively. Packed cell volume was higher (P < 0.05) in NNK than OVB chickens offered waterad libitum, but similar in birds offered 70 and 40 % of ad libitum. There were no differences in erythrocyte count (RBC) and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) values between strains, but MCV was higher in birds on 40 than 70 % of ad libitum water intake, irrespective of strain. Naked neck chickens had higher (P < 0.05) white blood cell count (WBC) values than OVB chickens at 40 % restriction level, but lower WBC than OVB at 70 % water restriction level. Uric acid, creatinine, triacylglycerides, total cholesterol, low density lipid cholesterol, total protein and globulin increased (P < 0.05) with each increment in water restriction, but the increase in creatinine and total cholesterol was more pronounced in OVB than NNK chickens. The opposite was observed for uric acid. Alanine transaminase, alkaline phosphatase and aspartate transaminase activities were not influenced by strain and water restriction. It was concluded that the two strains could withstand up to 40 % of ad libitum water restriction, but NNK chickens tolerated water stress better than OVB chickens. Water intake levels of 40% of ad libitum produced meat with significantly lower (P < 0.05) cooking loss, and higher (P < 0.05) redness (a*) values in NNK chickens compared with OVB chickens. Water intake level had no effect (P > 0.05) on lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) values, shear force, moisture and protein contents in both strains. The fat content of NNK meat was 41 % lower (P < 0.05) than that of OVB meat at 70 % of ad libitum, but 31 % higher at 40 % of ad libitum water intake. The ash content was significantly elevated (P < 0.05) in birds on 70 % of ad libitum compared to those on ad libitum and 40 % of ad libitum water intake, which had similar (P > 0.05) ash contents. Birds on 40 % of ad libitum water intake had significantly higher (P < 0.05) proportions of octadecanoic acid (C18:0), cis, cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid (C18:2 ῳ-6), cis-8,11,14,17-eicosatetraenoic acid (C20:4 ῳ-6), cis-7,10,13,16-docosatetraenoic acid (C22:4 ῳ-6), cis-4,7,10,13,16,19-docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 ῳ-3), total polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), total omega-3 PUFA and total omega-6 PUFA proportions, but lower (P < 0.05) cis-7-hexadecenoic (C16:1c7), cis-9-octadecenoic (C18:1c9), cis-11-octadecenoic acid (C18:1c11), cis-13-docosenoic acid (C22:1c13), total monounsaturated fatty acids than those on the 70% of ad libitum and ad libitum water intake, respectively. The proportion of trans-9-octadenoic acid (C18:1t9) was higher (P < 0.05) in NNK chickens on 40 % of ad libitum water intake than OVB chickens. It was concluded that water restriction at 40 % of ad libitum water intake resulted in favourable cooking loss values and meat redness (a*) values, omega-3 and 6 PUFA proportions and a high ῳ-6/ῳ-3 ratio. The high fat content of NNK chickens at 40 % of ad libitum water intake compared to OVB chickens suggests a superior adaptation to hydric stress. Naked Neck breast meat had higher initial impression of juiciness scores than that from OVB chickens, but only in birds on ad libitum and 70 % of ad libitum water intake. Sensory scores for first bite, connective tissue and tenderness decreased with increasing severity of water restriction (P < 0.05). Aroma, flavour and atypical flavour were not affected by strain or water restriction level (P > 0.05). There were significant strain differences for sustained impression of juiciness and tenderness, with the highest scores occurring in NNK chickens (P < 0.05). Aroma had a significant influence on the flavour of breast meat (P < 0.05). Fat content was significantly correlated with initial impression of juiciness, first bite and sustained impression of juiciness of breast meat. It was concluded that water restriction up to 40 % of ad libitum had a significant and adverse impact on juiciness and first bite scores of meat. / Ph.D. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg 2013.

Magister Scientiae - MSc / As a means to reduce poverty particularly in rural areas, the South African government has placed great emphasis on the development of small-scale farmers into becoming commercial farmers. Central to this effort is the provision of agricultural extension support, as reflected in the 1995 White Paper on Agriculture (DOA, 1995), African National Congress (ANC) policy resolutions of 2007 (ANC, 2007) and a 2011 extension recovery plan (DAFF, 2011). Parallel to this policy process, a growing role of nongovernmental organisations (NGOs) in supporting small-scale farmers, and criticising the governmental approach is observed. Biowatch is one example of this kind of NGO that, aside from its direct support to farmers, advocates for an alternative approach that embraces ‘subsistence’ farming. The academic literature suggests that existing agricultural policies are too generic and therefore fail to accommodate the different types of small-scale farmers that are found in rural areas, resulting in poor policy impact. This thesis seeks to establish the ideological thinking underpinning two paradigms of small-scale farmer development in South Africa and explores what they look like in practice, while analysing how they produce and reproduce class differentiation, and the emergence of various livelihood trajectories. Through qualitative research conducted in one case study site (the village Emagengeni in Northern KwaZulu- Natal) the views of farmers (beneficiaries of extension support as well as non-receivers) have been elicited and so contribute to a clear picture of what is happening there. In addition, experiences and perceptions of government extension officers, provincial officials and a Biowatch official are taken into account. Theoretically, the study is framed using Cousins’ (2011) class analytical perspectives on smallscale farming in South Africa which distinguish between three types of ‘petty commodity producers’, i.e. (i) petty commodity producers that produce to meet most of their social reproduction needs, (ii) petty commodity producers producing to partially meet their social reproduction needs and (iii) petty commodity producers producing enough to sell and make profit and start to accumulate capital. In addition, the categories described by Dorward et al (2009) in the ‘stepping up’, ‘hanging in’ ‘stepping out’ and ‘dropping out’ theory, are used to analyse the broad types of strategies pursued by poor people. The sustainable livelihoods framework is used to classify the various types of farming households observed. The main argument is that since 1994 the nature of public agricultural support has not met the needs of the majority of farmers in the country, i.e. poorly resourced farmers mostly located in the former homelands. This is because it is trying to make them into something they are not, i.e. commercial farmers and is focused on on-farm productivity and does not address wider market conditions. Although Biowatch demonstrates a more effective response to farmers’ needs, it is limited in its approach to agrarian transformation. The conclusion is that government’s fixation on the commercialisation of small-scale farmers perpetuates the existing and already problematic dualism within the agricultural sector.

The inaccessibility and cost of soil testing reduce effectiveness of fertilizer use on small-scale subsistence farms, and inadequate funding promotes adoption of soil tests in developing countries with minimal validation. For example, Mehlich-I extraction of phosphorus (P) currently used extensively in Guatemala may not be suitable for its broad range of soils. At least four alternatives are available but are relatively untested [Bray 1, Mehlich III, Olsen and pressurized hot water (PHW)]. Pressurized hot water is relatively simple and inexpensive, but is not yet tested against other extraction methods under variable P or potassium (K) fertilization levels. To determine whether PHW-extracted nutrients could be used to predict maize yield, as nutrient content and uptake, soil, plant tissue and grain samples were obtained from a multiple-site field study and calibration studies were conducted using five rates of P and three rates of K on soils incubated without plants or cropped with maize in greenhouse and field conditions. In the multiple-site field study, maize yield related significantly to PHW-extractable P (r2=0.36) and to leaf P concentration (r2=0.23), but Mehlich I did not. In the two soils used in the greenhouse study, maize yield, vegetative P concentration and total P uptake by maize were predicted by PHW extractable P (R2=0.72, 0.75 and 0.90, respectively). In the field experiment, grain yield was not improved by P or K application, but P content of maize leaf tissue did relate significantly with PHW-extracted P (R2=0.40), but Mehlich I did not. There were no yield responses to K application in any experiment, but relationships defined between extractable K for all five K-extraction procedures and soil applied K were similarly significant. In comparing P extraction methods, PHW was as good as or better than Olsen, Bray 1 and Mehlich III for relating soil P extraction to the parameters measured in these experiments, and these four alternative extraction methods were consistently better than Mehlich I. Mehlich I extraction should be replaced by one of the four alternatives tested, and PHW is the least expensive and, thus, most viable for use in Guatemala soils.

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Technology: Governance and Economic Development, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa. 2015. / South African rural areas are amongst the poorest in the world, as there is still a wide gap in terms of development with their urban neighbours. With an estimated 6.4 million South Africans falling below the national poverty line in 2010, KwaZulu-Natal (KZN) remains the province with the highest number of poor people. The majority of rural dwellers in South Africa and KZN rely on subsistence farming, while others depend on government grants or family members living and working in urban areas to sustain a living. However, the income received is often insufficient to cater for their daily needs. In consonance with the high prevalence of poverty and the stagnation of subsistence farming, this study aims to examine the role of water supply in rural agricultural development in the Ward 19 area of Mtubatuba Municipality, which is situated along the north eastern region of KZN. To accomplish this aim, a mixed research approach with elements of qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (questionnaire) research techniques was used to obtain relevant information. A total of 50 participants took part in this study, all of whom were subsistence farmers in Ward 19 of Mtubatuba Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal. Furthermore, interviews were conducted with three senior officials from the regional office of the Department of Water Affairs in Durban; three staff members from the Mtubatuba Municipality; two individuals from Ward 19; two senior staff members from the Department of Agriculture, Environmental Affairs and Rural Development in Mtubatuba; as well as two senior staff members from Umkanyakude water services provider in Mtubatuba. The study revealed that water shortages have adversely undermined the development and growth of subsistence farming in this poor community. Furthermore, the difficulties experienced by the marginalised people of Ward 19 are typical of many rural areas which have not fully benefitted from transformation in a post-apartheid South Africa. In order to address the defunct subsistence iii farming in this community, the study proposed a well-tailored and effective water resource management approach with the intention of transforming subsistence farming into commercial farming, thus improving the standard of living and reducing poverty to a reasonable level. Furthermore, in recognition that the area under study is dominated by women, the study emphasised the imperativeness of empowering the women of the community as a strategy underpinning rural development.

Food security exists when the issue of poverty is addressed. Simultaneous access to different forms of capital ensures sustainable livelihoods. On the other hand, food insecurity is interwoven in unemployment and illiteracy, especially amongst adult women. Food insecurity is also deeply rooted in the lack of access to food and non-availability. This compromises the livelihoods within communities The study is concerned with the current state of poverty that remains stagnant, bringing about food insecurity, despite the food security campaigns that have been launched in South Africa. The aim of the study is to establish whether the ‘One Home One Garden’ campaign is unique compared to other campaigns in trying to fight food insecurity. It further inquires about access to the resources necessary to make gardens a sustainable source of livelihood. In order to fulfil these inquiries, qualitative research was undertaken at Nkandla in a section called eQhudeni within two subsections, Nsingabantu and Mjonisini. This research was based on the examination of the impact of the ‘One Home One Garden’ campaign as a poverty alleviation strategy. The study found that poverty, which contributes to food insecurity, has not been addressed by the campaign. Households suffer from chronic food insecurity given the high levels of poverty in the area. ‘The One Home One Garden’ campaign is not sustainable because it does not address the holistic needs of gardening, such as access to organic seeds and water and furthermore it is in any case seasonal. Research obtained showed that people’s perceptions are that the seeds are genetically modified based on the appearance of the produce, and also that they do not reproduce. The study viewed home gardens as a tool capable of addressing food insecurities, but, highlighted that it does not fully address all aspects, rather it upholds that poverty needs to be tackled holistically. In addition, it emphasises that for people to have a sustainable livelihood there should be designated market places from which they can sell their produce. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2011.

This study explored and examined indigenous knowledge IK in the process of maize production and soil management by farmers in Msinga in central KwaZulu-Natal. This study was qualitative in nature. Two methods were used for data collection: focus group discussions; and individual semi-structured interviews. The study found that the Msinga farmers have a range of techniques and strategies to produce maize and manage the soil; they have been relying on this knowledge for generations. However, many farmers have also begun to adopt elements of western science such as the use of hybrid seeds, fertilizers and pesticides – albeit access to them is a major problem. It was also found that these indigenous knowledge and techniques have also suffered as result of different factors, including the climate conditions as result of the growing drought in the area, the passing on of elders with knowledge, and the breakdown of social cohesion. Communities' indigenous knowledge has been rendered ineffective to, alone, address their maize production and soil management issues. As a result, indigenous knowledge is dying in this community and the farmers are not able to produce sufficient maize to meet their needs. In the face of these pressures, the Msinga farmers also lack any meaningful external assistance either from the government or private agencies. They have no access to extension. This means that communities have to fend for themselves, and where indigenous knowledge has failed they have no other alternatives that will help them to adjust to their environment. Finally, the study found that as a result of this stasis, the Msinga farmers and their families are poor and lack the basic means for their daily survival; food shortages are frequent. The consequence is that they appear powerless and unable to cope with challenges. The study recommends an integrated approach to address issues of reconstructing indigenous knowledge; social cohesion; environmental matters; poverty eradication; external support and integrating indigenous knowledge and western science. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

The transformation of South Africa’s rural communal spaces into an economically viable, socially stable and harmonious sector is currently on the political agenda, the efforts of the public sector to achieve this however have fallen far short of the intended goal leaving subsistence and emerging farmers with little or no support. A current decline in agricultural activity in South Africa’s rural areas threatens to weaken even further the strength of rural economies. Calls for the return of ‘peasant’ agriculture to the political and academic agendas and a clarion call for South African farmers to rewrite their history lie within the problem of sustaining humanity with the economic, social, environmental and temporal dimensions as a driver for development. This thesis interprets the activities and behaviours that defined the innovative response of small-scale commercial farmers in KwaZulu-Natal who role model ‘farming’ as a ‘way of life’ in communal land spaces. The focus of the research was to interpret a useful meaning in the re-negotiation of power relationships between producers and their market. It conceptualised the process of individuals who had determined, and continue to define, their future. The events observed over the three years of field work, offered the possibility of generating an emergent solution to re-inventing farming as a way of life as season by season, decisions were made at the individual homestead level, collectively at community level and between internal and external decision-makers for market oriented agriculture as an additional farming strategy. A constructivist epistemology, relying on a pragmatic approach to using grounded theory methods within a participatory process, constituted the study design. The research focussed only on emic issues as the ‘culture’ or social and material priorities of the agronomic system in transition. For this reason, sensitising concepts were drawn from within the context to limit the scope and analysis of the study. Following the field work and write up, the literature of agrarian change was used to locate the study and consider the practical contribution of the study. This research identified that ‘successful’ commercial homestead agriculture was the result of changes in mind-set that allowed for new norms and behaviours for farming practice and for relationships. These shifts provided leverage points for overcoming resistance between producers and markets in accommodating a sustainable market oriented agronomy. Influencing the change was the impact of informed decision making, which brought the stakeholders together through the sharing of values and beliefs. Success was interpreted as using the market-orientated production of amadumbe to tap into the factors that sustained and created social cohesion, as well as those that stimulated agricultural activity. This emphasis encouraged the capacity for development and cultivation of sustainability. The research proposes that deliberate interdependence between producers and markets creates the incentive for development that is self-determining, sustainable and derives economic benefits from agricultural activity. This research contributes towards understanding how to re-define commercialisation as an inherent characteristic of traditional agricultural practice and, within this, a meaningful description for stakeholders of the social impact of a deliberate and mutually determined reconstruction of livelihood reality through a farmer-market researcher relationship. The research introduces the need for a new way of engaging over agriculture in communal spaces; how Discourse is defined and managed; for whom the results of evaluation and monitoring are aimed; and to whom the results of research belong. The research raises consciousness of the need for a space within which dialogue and support for sustaining social agriculture and the role that research institutions could play. The product of this research is a theory whose core variable defines successful commercial homestead agriculture as a dimension of systemic integrity between internal and external economic interactions. Systemic integrity has been defined as the process by which commercialisation of traditional agriculture has been demonstrated through tapping into the motivations that stimulate agricultural activity and nurturing social cohesion as the framework for legitimate development partnerships. The findings contribute to the discussion of how to unlock the technological and productive potential of rural communities within the images of supportiveness, solidarity, and communalism that produce food for the survival of humanity in a contemporary and dynamic world. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

MESC / Department of Hydrology and Water Resources / Wetlands are known of their pollution reduction characteristics due to their flat topography and dense vegetation which capture pollutants on the settling sediments. Three processes take place on the captured pollutants in the sediments, the physical, chemical and biological processes, which facilitate the removal of pollutants from the wetlands. This research was carried out in order to assess the Water Quality of wetland downstream of Makhado oxidation ponds and its potential effects on Irrigation Waters by determining the Physical-chemical parameters (pH, Dissolved Oxygen, temperature, electrical conductivity and turbidity); the nutrient levels (Nitrates, phosphates, nitrites, bromide) and heavy metals. The water samples were collected from the effluent discharge of Makhado oxidation ponds (upstream), the middle section of the wetland (midstream) and downstream of the wetland. The climate data for the study was also used assess the contribution to variation in the physical-chemical parameters during their passage through the wetland. The use of waters in the wetland by subsistence farmer’s was also assessed to determine their farmer’s perception on wastewater reuse, sustainability, water quality, health hazards and crop yield. At the discharge and midstream point, the physical parameters tested were found to be mostly outside the target water quality range of irrigation water set out by DWAF but are within the DWAF guidelines for discharge of wastewater. The exceptions were with total dissolved solids which were higher than 25 mg/l guideline value of the said standards. The anions were analysed by Ion chromatography and showed spatial variation in content and seasonality. The nutrients (nitrates, nitrites and phosphates) and chloride were higher than the DWAF guidelines for discharge of wastewater. The heavy metal content in the wetland was analysed by ICP-OES and varied throughout the wetland. The following metals were reduced during their passage in wetland and were within DWAF guidelines: zinc, lead, cadmium and total chromium. Iron and manganese were reduced during the drier season but were above the DWAF guideline values during the wet season. Also the metal contents in the wetland are out of the target water quality range of the same standards bringing forth the risks of toxicity in the wetland. The anion analysis also suggests that the wetland is becoming a nutrient rich environment bringing forth risks of eutrophication. Nitrite concentrations did not conform to the South African viii Water Guidelines on target water quality ranges for irrigation water. Farmers have expressed a positive opinion on wastewater use for irrigation since there are loads of nutrients. The presence of nutrients in wetland may contribute to development of harmful algal blooms.

Text in English / The study analysed the effects of conservation farming in Zimbabwe using a mixed methodology approach. This analysis comes against the background of the recognition that climate change, as characterized by severe droughts, has played a significant role in reducing agricultural productivity, in the process leaving smallholder farmers and the nation of Zimbabwe exposed to recurrent food insecurity. Conservation farming was introduced as a climate adaptation strategy that was aimed at improving crop yields. The study focused on assessing the association between the adoption of conservation farming and a concomitant increase in agricultural productivity. This was key in understanding if there are benefits of using conservation farming as opposed to making use of the conventional method of farming. The study also investigated the nature of conservation farming being practiced in Umguza District; this was done in order to understand whether smallholder farmers are implementing all the key principles underpinning the use of conservation farming. The study further assessed the challenges and opportunities that exist through the use of conservation farming with the aim of coming up with sustainable solutions to the challenges affecting smallholder farmers. The study went on to assess the factors that determine the adoption and maximum utilization of conservation farming. Identification of these key variables was instrumental in the design of a localized conservation farming model. Study results revealed that conservation farming is an effective method of increasing agricultural productivity. The study also established that smallholder farmers are not implementing all the key principles of conservation farming and this was attributed to the failure to include the smallholder farmers in the design of conservation farming models. It was further revealed that smallholder farmers face various challenges that include access to inputs and limited support from the government. Implications of the study highlight the need for the community to be actively involved in the design of a conservation farming model localized to the unique context of smallholder farmers. A prototype for implementing a sustainable conservation farming model was developed in collaboration with the smallholder farmers as part of a solution based approach to dealing with the challenges affecting smallholder farmers. / School of Agriculture and Life Sciences / Ph. D.