Genom art. 7 i databasdirektivet, 96/9/EG, introducerades det så kallade sui generis-skyddet för icke-originella databaser. Skyddet infördes i syfte att skapa incitament till investeringar i databaser genom att erbjuda ensamrätt för sådana databaser vilka på grund av sin icke-originella karaktär inte kunde skyddas av upphovsrätt. Enligt Direktivets art. 7 (1) ska medlemsstaterna tillerkänna databaser vilka är resultatet av väsentliga investeringar i anskaffning granskning och presentation visst skydd.   Denna uppsats utreder vad rekvisitet "väsentlig investering" enligt art. 7 (1) Direktivet innebär. I uppsatsen utreds vilka sammanställningar som omfattas av Direktivets definition av databas, vem ensamrätten tillfaller, vilka investeringar som är hänförliga till anskaffning, granskning och presentation samt vilka investeringar som ska anses vara väsentliga.

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What do we owe to our loved ones? What is the status of these requirements? How do we reconcile them with other requirements? Are we allowed to buy our child an expensive car when that money could save countless strangers overseas? What exactly does morality demand of us? / My thesis defends an account of partiality justified in terms of relationships. I develop the view that relationships are inextricably linked to wellbeing, and I defend the idea that morality must be concerned with our wellbeing. I try to make sense of this account of partiality with the idea that morality carries a requirement of impartiality. If wellbeing is an important part of morally right actions, and if acting in accordance with reasons of partiality (qua relationships) sometimes promotes wellbeing better than impartiality, then some reasons of partiality lead to morally right actions. Minimally, I argue that for why a strictly impartial (or, on the other extreme, a strictly partial) theory does not work. Both reasons (of partiality and impartiality) must be taken into account and carefully calibrated. More ambitiously, I argue for why partiality deserves its own place at the table in normative ethical theorizing. This is not to say that partiality always leads to right action, rather the suggestion is that there are some forms of partiality (found within relationships) which morality requires. / Thesis / Candidate in Philosophy / Some forms of partiality seem clearly wrong, like racial bias or nepotism; in such cases, it is better to consider our reasons to be impartial, which seem to lead to more fairness or equality. Still, there seem to be other forms of partiality which are clearly right, like the love and care a parent has for their child; in these cases, considering our reasons to be impartial seem like (to quote Bernard Williams), “one thought too many.” This thesis tries fit reasons of partiality and reasons of impartiality together, and argues for a view of (moral) partiality grounded in relationships.

Le droit de la propriété intellectuelle présente, depuis quelques années, un intérêt particulier à l'évolution de la recherche sur les plantes. Ceci s'est traduit, au plan international, par l'adoption de plusieurs instruments visant à assurer une meilleure protection des investissements consentis dans ce domaine. Il s'agit notamment de la Convention de l'UPOV, qui s'inscrit dans une logique de protection par la voie sui generis avec la possibilité de délivrance de certificat d'obtention végétale aux sélectionneurs; de l'Accord ADPIC, qui, en plus de recommander un système sui generis efficace, ouvre l'option de protection par brevet ou en définitive par le cumul des deux systèmes; de la Convention sur la Diversité Biologique (CDB) et du Traité de la FAO portant sur les ressources phytogénétiques pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture, qui, favorables aux deux précédentes formes de protection, demandent que soient prises en compte des considérations relatives aux droits souverains des pays sur leurs ressources végétales, au partage des bénéfices, etc. Au plan régional, on distingue, entre autres, l'initiative de l'Afrique, visant à assurer la protection des plantes suivant une logique partagée entre l'alignement sur les normes internationales existantes (Accord de Bangui) ou l'institution d'une autre législation originale qui reflète les réalités et préoccupations du continent (Loi modèle). Il apparaît donc qu'il existe plusieurs instruments pour cerner la même réalité. Ceci est forcément la source de quelques difficultés qui sont d'ordre conceptuel, socioéconomique, environnemental et juridique. Pour les pallier, il est important que certaines conditions soient satisfaites afin d'harmoniser les points de vue entre les différents acteurs concernés par la question et d'assurer une appropriation conséquente des instruments adoptés. / The intellectual property rights have showed increasing attention to the evolution of plant research in recent years. This has been reflected, at the international level through the adoption of several measures to ensure a fairly comprehensive protection of rights arising. These measures include the Convention of the Union for the protection of Plant breeder' Rights, which is part of a logic of protection through sui generis with the possibility of issue plant breeders' rights to breeders; the Agreement on Intellectual Property Rights Related to Trade, which, in addition to recommending an effective sui generis system gives the option of protection by patent or by the combination of the two systems of law to protect plant varieties; the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which supported both previous forms of protection, ask to be taken into account considerations on sovereign rights of nations over their plant resources, benefit sharing, and so on. At the regional level, there are the initiative of the Africa which aimed to ensure the protection of plants following a certain vision shared between alignment on existing international standards or the institution of another original legislation which reflects the realities and concerns of the continent. It then appears that there are several tools to handle the same reality, which can be a source of difficulty. These are difficulties are conceptual, socio-economic, environmental and legal. T0 overcome these difficulties, it is important that certain conditions are met to harmonise points of view between different actors involved in the issue and ensure a consistent ownership of the instruments adopted.

Le droit de la propriété intellectuelle présente, depuis quelques années, un intérêt particulier à l'évolution de la recherche sur les plantes. Ceci s'est traduit, au plan international, par l'adoption de plusieurs instruments visant à assurer une meilleure protection des investissements consentis dans ce domaine. Il s'agit notamment de la Convention de l'UPOV, qui s'inscrit dans une logique de protection par la voie sui generis avec la possibilité de délivrance de certificat d'obtention végétale aux sélectionneurs; de l'Accord ADPIC, qui, en plus de recommander un système sui generis efficace, ouvre l'option de protection par brevet ou en définitive par le cumul des deux systèmes; de la Convention sur la Diversité Biologique (CDB) et du Traité de la FAO portant sur les ressources phytogénétiques pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture, qui, favorables aux deux précédentes formes de protection, demandent que soient prises en compte des considérations relatives aux droits souverains des pays sur leurs ressources végétales, au partage des bénéfices, etc. Au plan régional, on distingue, entre autres, l'initiative de l'Afrique, visant à assurer la protection des plantes suivant une logique partagée entre l'alignement sur les normes internationales existantes (Accord de Bangui) ou l'institution d'une autre législation originale qui reflète les réalités et préoccupations du continent (Loi modèle). Il apparaît donc qu'il existe plusieurs instruments pour cerner la même réalité. Ceci est forcément la source de quelques difficultés qui sont d'ordre conceptuel, socioéconomique, environnemental et juridique. Pour les pallier, il est important que certaines conditions soient satisfaites afin d'harmoniser les points de vue entre les différents acteurs concernés par la question et d'assurer une appropriation conséquente des instruments adoptés. / The intellectual property rights have showed increasing attention to the evolution of plant research in recent years. This has been reflected, at the international level through the adoption of several measures to ensure a fairly comprehensive protection of rights arising. These measures include the Convention of the Union for the protection of Plant breeder' Rights, which is part of a logic of protection through sui generis with the possibility of issue plant breeders' rights to breeders; the Agreement on Intellectual Property Rights Related to Trade, which, in addition to recommending an effective sui generis system gives the option of protection by patent or by the combination of the two systems of law to protect plant varieties; the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which supported both previous forms of protection, ask to be taken into account considerations on sovereign rights of nations over their plant resources, benefit sharing, and so on. At the regional level, there are the initiative of the Africa which aimed to ensure the protection of plants following a certain vision shared between alignment on existing international standards or the institution of another original legislation which reflects the realities and concerns of the continent. It then appears that there are several tools to handle the same reality, which can be a source of difficulty. These are difficulties are conceptual, socio-economic, environmental and legal. T0 overcome these difficulties, it is important that certain conditions are met to harmonise points of view between different actors involved in the issue and ensure a consistent ownership of the instruments adopted.

In today’s data-driven society, also called the Fourth Industrial Revolution, Text and Data Mining (TDM) has become an essential tool in managing the booming Big Data in its different sizes and forms. It is also an inherent part of AI research using machine learning, where these techniques highly depend on datasets derived from TDM to self-learn and to make autonomous decisions. Through the lens of copyright and related rights, TDM may be used to train AI for the purpose of AI-driven creativity, where AI has already helped in actualizing paintings, compose music and to produce movie trailers. However, since TDM typically involves extraction and/or copying of works and other subject matter protectable by copyright and related rights – in order to create datasets relevant to each AI project – it is at risk of infringing the exclusive right of reproduction and sui generis database right under the EU acquis. Indeed, TDM used for the purpose of AI-driven creativity may not necessarily amount to an infringement, if the restricted act is covered by prima facie an available exception or limitation. Several pre-existing exceptions and limitations under the EU acquis, i.e. temporary act of reproduction, scientific research, normal use of a database, extraction of insubstantial part from a database and the mandatory exception for computer programs, have been examined as possible candidates to screen unlicensed TDM activities from copyright and related rights infringement. However, this thesis observes that due to their narrow scope and the legal fragmentation caused by the voluntary implementation of some of the exceptions, these are not fully adapted to cover unlicensed TDM and thus creating legal uncertainties for AI developers. In this regard, in order to transfers the fundamental principle of copyright and related rights into the digital age and to compete with legal systems that offer a more friendly environment for TDM (e.g. US, Japan and UK), the European legislator adopted the Digital Single Market Directive 2019/790 (DSM Directive) comprising two obligatory TDM exceptions in articles 3 and 4. However, despite the reduction of several legal uncertainties and the diverging national implementations of the pre-existing exceptions and limitations, the adopted regime has significant shortcoming that may hinder the AI development in Europe. Ultimately, this thesis concludes that despite following an approach that better fits the digital environment, the DSM Directive fails to address the new era of the Fourth Industrial Revolution to which AI belongs.

Gamingindustrin utgör idag en stor, globaliserad marknad, där spelutvecklingsprocessen kan medföra utgifter som uppgår till flera miljarder svenska kronor. En viktig del av moderna spel är det grafiska användargränssnittet, s.k. GUI, som är den interaktiva, grafiska yta med vilken en spelare interagerar. GUI utgör slutprodukten av spelets sammantagna delar och avgör hur spelupplevelsen uppfattas av användaren. GUI:s immaterialrättsliga skydd är villkorligt och fragmenterat, vilket är oproportionerligt till GUI:s betydelse för gamingindustrin.  Det huvudsakliga syftet med uppsatsen är att belysa vilka immaterialrättsliga lagar som skyddar en GUI idag, samt att föreslå på vilket sätt skyddet kan förbättras. I uppsatsen undersöks även de amerikanska immaterialrättsliga lagarna som berör det grafiska användargränssnittet. Undersökningen utförs med avsikt att studera vilka rättsnormer som möjligtvis kan komplettera den svenska lagstiftningen, och därmed förbättra GUI:s skydd i en svensk kontext.  Framställningens disposition har till ändamål att besvara uppsatsens frågeställningar på ett systematiskt och ordnat sätt. Först har den svenska upphovsrättslagen och andra immaterialrättsliga lagar som är av intresse undersökts. Vidare har relevanta europeiska rättsakter tagits upp och redogjorts för. Slutligen har den amerikanska immaterialrättsliga lagstiftningen, samt viktiga prejudikat studerats. Undersökningen har uppvisat ett behov av att tydliggöra GUI:s ställning inom den svenska upphovsrätten, eftersom det nuvarande skyddet präglas av vissa brister. Exempelvis har domstolar inom både EU och Sverige inte definierat vilka element som kan ingå i ett användargränssnitt, vilket gör att frågan om GUI:s skydd lämnats ofullständigt. Kontentan av vad som presenterats är att GUI behöver ett bättre skydd, vilket kan åstadkommas på två olika sätt. Tillförandet av en ny verkskategori i upphovsrättslagen kan ge GUI den ställning som motsvarar dess roll i gamingindustrin. Alternativt kan GUI erhålla ett s.k. sui generis-skydd, som kan likna det EU-rättsliga skyddet för databaser. Åtgärderna lyfter ömsesidigt GUI:s roll som något unikt och essentiellt för framtida teknikutveckling.

Economic development in Sri Lanka has relied heavily on foreign and domestic investment. Digital databases are a new and attractive area for this investment. This thesis argues that investment needs protection and this is crucial to attract future investment. The thesis therefore proposes a digital database protection mechanism with a view to attracting investment in digital databases to Sri Lanka. The research examines various existing protection measures whilst mainly focusing on the sui generis right protection which confirms the protection of qualitative and/or quantitative substantial investment in the obtaining, verification or presentation of the contents of digital databases. In digital databases, this process is carried out by computer programs which establish meaningful and useful data patterns through their data mining process, and subsequently use those patterns in Knowledge Discovery within database processes. Those processes enhance the value and/or usefulness of the data/information. Computer programs need to be protected, as this thesis proposes, by virtue of patent protection because the process carried out by computer programs is that of a technical process - an area for which patents are particularly suitable for the purpose of protecting. All intellectual property concepts under the existing mechanisms address the issue of investment in databases in different ways. These include Copyright, Contract, Unfair Competition law and Misappropriation and Sui generis right protection. Since the primary objective of the thesis is to introduce a protection system for encouraging qualitative and quantitative investment in digital databases in Sri Lanka, this thesis suggests a set of mechanisms and rights which comprises of existing intellectual protection mechanisms for databases. The ultimate goal of the proposed protection mechanisms and rights is to improve the laws pertaining to the protection of digital databases in Sri Lanka in order to attract investment, to protect the rights and duties of the digital database users and owners/authors and, eventually, to bring positive economic effects to the country. Since digital database protection is a new concept in the Sri Lankan legal context, this research will provide guidelines for policy-makers, judges and lawyers in Sri Lanka and throughout the South Asian region.

La classification des personnes publiques s’est bâtie sur une distinction dualiste avec d’un côté, la catégorie des collectivités territoriales et de l’autre, celle des établissements publics. A cause des réticences du juge et de la doctrine, la question de l’existence de nouvelles personnes publiques est restée scellée jusqu’à la troisième voie ouverte par le législateur et l’apparition des groupements d’intérêt public (GIP). Les GIP ont été les premières structures qualifiées de personnes publiques innomées. Ensuite, la jurisprudence a consacré l’institution juridique de personnes publiques sui generis à l’image de la Banque de France. Dans les années 2000, le législateur a étendu la liste des personnes publiques innomées en créant une nouvelle forme d’autorité administrative indépendante, les autorités publiques indépendantes dotées de la personnalité morale. Ces personnes publiques ont été créées en vue de moderniser l’action administrative. Elles sont parfois présentées comme des nouvelles formules juridiques venant concurrencer l’établissement public devenu, semble-t-il, une formule désuète au regard des impératifs de la modernisation de la gestion publique. Toutefois, les nouvelles personnes publiques se différencient difficilement de l’établissement public. En effet, ces nouvelles structures sont dotées de la personnalité publique et elles sont soumises au principe de spécialité. Par conséquent, il est possible de rapprocher les nouvelles personnes publiques de la catégorie classique de l’établissement public. En définitive, la grande souplesse et la diversité du statut des établissements publics permettent de dégager l’existence de plusieurs catégories d’établissements publics parmi lesquelles il convient de ranger les nouvelles personnes publiques spéciales. / Classification of public entities is built on a dualistic distinction with one hand, the category of local authorities and the other, that of public establishments. Because of the reluctance of judge and doctrine, the question of the existence of new public entities remained sealed until the third path opened by the legislature and the emergence of public interest groups (GIP). The GIP were the first structures of qualified persons unnamed public. Next, the jurisprudence has dedicated legal institution sui generis public persons in the image of the Bank of France. In the 2000s, the legislature has expanded the list of unnamed public by creating a new form of independent administrative authority, public authorities with independent legal personality. These public entities were created to modernize administrative action. They are sometimes presented as new legal formulas from competing public establishment became, it seems, an outdated formula under the imperatives of modernization of public administration. However, the new public figures hardly differ from the public establishment. Indeed, these new structures have the public persona and are subject to the principle of specialty. Therefore, it is possible to bring new entities public the classical category of public establishment. Ultimately, the flexibility and diversity of the status of public establishments can identify the existence of several categories including public institutions should store the new special public entities.

Il est des notions servant d’architecture aux opérations d’épargne tellement anciennes, voire un tantinet désuètes et « exotiques », qu’elles finissent par n’intéresser qu’une poignée de spécialistes. C’est le cas de la tontine qui occupe une place résolument atypique et différenciée. Son traitement est tout aussi significatif que paradoxal. À son évocation, contrairement aux autres techniques juridiques et malgré sa relative confidentialité, n’importe quel particulier est capable de tracer une trame, peu ou prou précise, mais néanmoins avec une constance dès lors qu’il s’agit de ses deux points cardinaux que sont la survie, comme condition exécutoire, et la mort, comme condition résolutoire. Mais là s’arrête la bonne intuition et commencent un ensemble de malentendus ainsi qu’une certaine amphibologie. De prime abord, l’histoire de la tontine ne peut être écrite au singulier. Elle a changé d’objet à trois reprises, de 1653 à nos jours. Quand bien même son régime est parvenu à se stabiliser, la tontine est redevenue multiforme, faisant intervenir alternativement la vie et le décès comme fondement de l’extinction des obligations. Ensuite, sa représentation est toujours occultée par des récits des abus alors que la loi du 17 mars 1905 est parvenue à les sécuriser définitivement. Enfin, les démarches d’introspection ont été continuellement ramenées à la comparaison avec l’assurance vie. Peu convaincantes, elles butent toutes sur le postulat intangible qui sépare la tontine de l’assurance. De là, il faut définitivement se convaincre que la tontine est une opération d’épargne sui generis, définie par huit éléments constitutifs, dotée d’un droit spécial et couverte par le Code des assurances (articles R.322-139 à R.322-159). / There are architectural notions related to savings’ plans so ancient, even indeed slightly outmoded and « exotic », that they end up interesting only a handful of specialists. This is the case of tontine which fills a resolutely atypical and differentiated niche. Its processing is as significant as it is paradoxical. In fact, unlike other legal techniques and despite its relative confidentiality, any individual is capable of drawing a more or less accurate yet constant framework, that it includes two cardinal points which are survival as an execution clause, and death as a cancellation clause. But good intuition stops there and a whole series of misunderstandings begin, as does a certain amphibology. At first sight, tontine history cannot be written in a singular mode. Tontine has changed its object three times, from 1653 to this day. Although its system had become reliable, tontine merged again into a many-faceted profile, applying alternately, life and death events as a foundation of obligation extinction. Furthermore, tontine representation is always overshadowed by a sulphurous reputation even though the March 17th 1905 bill managed to definitely secure these operations. Finally, introspection initiatives have been continuously reduced to a comparison with life insurance. Unconvincing, they always trip over the intangible premise which separates tontine from insurance. From there, it is unequivocal that tontine is a sui generis savings’ plan, defined by eight constitutive elements, endowed with a specific legal system and covered by the insurance code (articles R.322-139 to R.322-159).