Charge transfer reactions and their rates play a key role in correctly estimating element abundances in astrophysical objects such as supernovae. The reaction $C + O^+ \rightarrow C^+ + O(^1D) + \Delta E$ has been shown to be of significance when estimating oxygen abundances through model spectrum evaluations, and the relative rate of this reaction can under certain circumstances completely dictate the neutralization rate of oxygen ions. In this project, the rate of this reaction for four different temperatures is estimated using the Olson-Demkov model to calculate the cross section of the reaction as well as calculating rates for a few more reactions to compare to established literature values.  We find that the Olson-Demkov model produces good estimates for reactions that have small energy defects (within an order of magnitude of more rigorous quantum mechanical calculations), but the model underestimates the rate coefficient by several orders of magnitude as the energy defect increases. As the investigated reactions are all exothermic, the energy defect is the released energy from the reaction (i.e., the energy defect is positive). It is also found in most cases that the Olson-Demkov model rate is poorly estimated by the rate coefficient based only on the cross section at the mean velocity, caused by the cross section rising rapidly for velocities higher than the mean. The rate estimates produced for C+O$^+$ are also likely to be underestimated, especially for the temperatures 100 and 1000 Kelvin. No literature comparison is available for this specific reaction, but this conclusion is consistent with the other investigated reactions. / Supernovor är bland de mest extrema fenomen vi kan observera i hela Universum. Dessa våldsamma explosioner lämnar spår efter sig i många år och har varit ovärdeliga objekt att observera för att lära oss mer hur vår galax och Universum har utvecklats över tid. Ljuset från supernovor och deras kvarlevor kan analyseras för att ta reda på vad för ämnen som finns kvar eller som har bildats av både explosionen och de processer som ägt rum efteråt. En typ av reaktion som är viktig för att fullt ut förstå dessa miljöer är så kallade "laddningsöverföringar", en reaktion där en laddad och en oladdad partikel interagerar med varandra varvid laddningen förflyttas mellan de två. Detta projekt har fokuserat på en modell som avser att räkna ut uppskattningar på hur sannolikt det är för dessa reaktioner att äga rum. Modellen, som kallas för Olson-Demkov-modellen, har även jämförts med andra modeller för att se under vilka förhållanden som den fungerar.

The IceCube Neutrino Observatory has sensitivity to MeV electron antineutrinos from core-collapse supernovae through an excess of the detection rate over the background. Wavelength-shifting sensors have the potential to greatly increase photon collection making it a promising candidate for improving the measurement of the supernova neutrino light curve in IceCube-Gen2. For high-energy neutrino reconstruction, the competing effect of increased photon collection and the broader time distribution necessitate detailed simulations to determine the impact. In this thesis, we investigate the sensitivity gain caused by wavelength shifters in a future IceCube-Gen2 detector regarding the detection of faint modulations of the supernova neutrino lightcurve. Furthermore, we lay the groundwork for a future high-energy reconstruction through the implementation and integration of wavelength-shifting sensors into the IceCube simulation framework.

<p>We present an observational protocol to observe and interpret asymmetries in stellar explosions using scattered light echoes. Spectroscopy of multiple light echoes are used to observe single astronomical sources from multiple viewing angles, allowing for direct observations of explosion asymmetries, when they exist. We present asymmetry detections for two famous historical supernovae: the ~25-year-old SN 1987A and the ~330-year-old Cassiopeia A. In both supernovae we find asymmetries in the first few hundred days of the explosion that appear to be correlated with the geometry of Fe-rich material in the remnant states.</p> <p>Spectroscopy of SN 1987A light echoes reveals a variation in the Hα line profile as a function of echo azimuth, with maximum asymmetry at position angles 16◦ and 186◦, in agreement with the major-axis of the elongated remnant ejecta. We interpret our asymmetry detection as evidence for a two-sided distribution of high-velocity 56Ni in the first few hundred days of SN 1987A, with the most dominant asymmetry redshifted in the south. For Cassiopeia A, we find evidence for a ~4000 km/s velocity excess in the first hundred days of the explosion, roughly aligned with an Fe-rich outflow in the supernova remnant and approximately opposite in direction to the motion of the compact object.</p> <p>Core-collapse supernovae have not yet been successfully modelled despite decades of progress in input physics and computing capability. Despite the significance of thermonuclear Type Ia supernovae to cosmology, the progenitor systems and explosion details also remain unclear. Both observational and theoretical work suggest that non-spherical effects are not only common in supernovae, but may in fact aid in generating successful explosions. In addition to offering a new technique for observing supernova asymmetries, spectroscopy of scattered light echoes allows a direct causal connection to be made between stellar explosions and their observed remnant states.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

A white dwarf is most likely the end stage of a low mass star like our Sun, which results when the parent star consumes all the hydrogen in its core, thus bringing fusion to a halt. It is a dense and compact object, where the inward gravitational pull is balanced by the outward pressure arising due to the motion of its constituent degenerate electrons. The theory of non-magnetized and non-rotating white dwarfs was formulated extensively by S. Chandrasekhar in the 1930s, who also proposed a maximum possible mass for this objects, known as the Chandrasekhar limit (Chandrasekhar 1935)1. White dwarfs are believed to be the progenitors of extremely bright explosions called type Ia supernovae (SNeIa). SNeIa are extremely important and popular astronomical events, which are hypothesized to be triggered in white dwarfs having mass close to the famous Chandrasekhar limit ∼ 1.44M⊙. The characteristic nature of the variation of luminosity with time of SNeIa is believed to be powered by the decay of 56Ni to 56Co and, finally, to 56Fe. This feature, along with the consistent mass of the exploding white dwarf, is deeply linked with their utilization as “standard candles” for cosmic distance measurement. In fact, SNeIa measurements were instrumental in establishing the accelerated nature of the current expansion of the universe (Perlmutter et al. 1999). However, several recently observed peculiar SNeIa do not conform to this traditional explanation. Some of these SNeIa are highly over-luminous, e.g. SN 2003fg, SN 2006gz, SN 2007if, SN 2009dc (Howell et al. 2006; Scalzo et al. 2010), and some others are highly under-luminous, e.g. SN 1991bg, SN 1997cn, SN 1998de, SN 1999by, SN 2005bl (Filippenko et al. 1992; Taubenberger et al. 2008). The luminosity of the former group of SNeIa implies a huge Ni-mass (often itself super-Chandrasekhar), invoking highly super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs, having mass 2.1 − 2.8M⊙, as their most plausible progenitors (Howell et al. 2006; Scalzo et al. 2010). On the other hand, the latter group produces as low as ∼ 0.1M⊙ of Ni (Stritzinger et al. 2006), which rather seem to favor sub-Chandrasekhar explosion scenarios. In this thesis, as the title suggests, we have endeavored to establish the existence of exotic, super- and sub-Chandrasekhar limiting mass white dwarfs, in order to explain the aforementioned peculiar SNeIa. This is an extremely important puzzle to solve in order to comprehensively understand the phenomena of SNeIa, which in turn is essential for the correct interpretation of the evolutionary history of the universe. Effects of magnetic field: White dwarfs have been observed to be magnetized, having surface fields as high as 105 − 109 G (Vanlandingham et al. 2005). The interior field of a white dwarf cannot be probed directly but it is quite likely that it is several orders of magnitude higher than the surface field. The theory of weakly magnetized white dwarfs has been investigated by a few authors, however, their properties do not starkly contrast with that of the non-magnetized cases (Ostriker & Hartwick 1968). In our venture to find a fundamental basis behind the formation of super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs, we have explored in this thesis the impact of stronger magnetic fields on the properties of white dwarfs, which has so far been overlooked. We have progressed from a simplistic to a more rigorous, self-consistent model, by adding complexities step by step, as follows: • spherically symmetric Newtonian model with constant (central) magnetic field • spherically symmetric general relativistic model with varying magnetic field • model with self-consistent departure from spherical symmetry by general relativis-tic magnetohydrodynamic (GRMHD) numerical modeling. We have started by exploiting the quantum mechanical effect of Landau quanti-zation due to a maximum allowed equipartition central field greater than a critical value Bc = 4.414 × 1013 G. To begin with, we have carried out the calculations in a Newtonian framework assuming spherically symmetric white dwarfs. The primary ef-fect of Landau quantization is to stiffen the equation of state (EoS) of the underlying electron degenerate matter in the high density regime, and, hence, yield significantly super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs having mass much & 2M⊙ (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2012a,b). Consequently, we have proposed a new mass limit for magnetized white dwarfs which may establish the aforementioned peculiar, over-luminous SNeIa as new standard candles (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2013a,b). We have furthermore predicted possible evo-lutionary scenarios by which super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs could form by accretion on to a commonly observed magnetized white dwarf, by invoking the phenomenon of flux freezing, subsequently ending in over-luminous, super-Chandrasekhar SNeIa (Das et al. 2013). Before moving on to a more complex model, we have justified the assumptions in our simplistic model, in the light of various related physics issues (Das & Mukhopad-hyay 2014b), and have also clarified, and, hence, removed some serious misconceptions regarding our work (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2015c). Next, we have considered a more self-consistent general relativistic framework. We have obtained stable solutions of magnetostatic equilibrium models for white dwarfs pertaining to various magnetic field profiles, however, still in spherical symmetry. We have showed that in this framework, a maximum stable mass as high as ∼ 3.3M⊙ can be realized (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2014a). However, it is likely that the anisotropic effect due to a strong magnetic field may cause a deformation in the spherical structure of the white dwarfs. Hence, in order to most self-consistently take into account this departure from spherical symmetry, we have constructed equilibrium models of strongly magnetized, static, white dwarfs in a general relativistic framework, first time in the literature to the best of our knowledge. In order to achieve this, we have modified the GRMHD code XNS (Pili et al. 2014), to apply it in the context of white dwarfs. Interestingly, we have found that signifi-cantly super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs, in the range ∼ 1.7 − 3.4M⊙, are obtained for many possible field configurations, namely, poloidal, toroidal and mixed (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2015a). Furthermore, due to the inclusion of deformation caused by a strong magnetic field, super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs are obtained for relatively lower central magnetic field strengths (∼ 1014 G) compared to that in the simplistic model — as correctly speculated in our first work of this series (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2012a). We have also found that although the characteristic deformation induced by a purely toroidal field is prolate, the overall shape remains quasi-spherical — justifying our earlier spherically symmetric assumption while constructing at least some models of strongly magnetized white dwarfs (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2014a). Indeed more accurate and extensive numerical analysis seems to have validated our analytical findings. Thus, very interestingly, our investigation has established that magnetized white dwarfs can indeed have mass that significantly exceeds the Chandrasekhar limit, irre-spective of the origin of the underlying magnetic effect — a discovery which is not only of theoretical importance, but also has a direct astrophysical implication in explaining the progenitors of the peculiar, over-luminous, super-Chandrasekhar SNeIa. Effects of modified Einstein’s gravity: A large array of models has been required to explain the peculiar, over- and under- luminous SNeIa. However, it is unlikely that nature would seek mutually antagonistic scenarios to exhibit sub-classes of apparently the same phenomena, i.e., triggering of thermonuclear explosions in white dwarfs. Hence, driven by the aim to establish a unification theory of SNeIa, we have invoked in the last part of this thesis a modification to Einstein’s theory of general relativity in white dwarfs. The validity of general relativity has been tested mainly in the weak field regime, for example, through laboratory experiments and solar system tests. However, the question remains, whether general relativity requires modification in the strong gravity regime, such as, the expanding universe, the region close to a black hole and neutron star. For instance, there is evidence from observational cosmology that the universe has undergone two epochs of cosmic acceleration, the theory behind which is not yet well understood. The period of acceleration in the early universe is known as inflation, while the current accelerated expansion is often explained by invoking a mysterious dark energy. An alternative approach to explain the mysteries of inflation and dark energy is to modify the underlying gravitational theory itself, as it conveniently avoids involving any exotic form of matter. Several modified gravity theories have been proposed which are extensions of Einstein’s theory of general relativity. A popular class of such theories is known as f (R) gravity (e.g. see de Felice & Tsujikawa 2010), where the Lagrangian density f of the gravitational field is an arbitrary function of the Ricci scalar R. In the context of astrophysical compact objects, so far, modified gravity theories have been applied only to neutron stars, which are much more compact than white dwarfs, in order to test the validity of such theories in the strong field regime (e.g. Cooney et al. 2010; Arapoˇglu et al. 2011). Moreover, a general relativistic correction itself does not seem to modify the properties of a white dwarf appreciably when compared to Newtonian calculations. Our venture of exploring modified gravity in white dwarfs in this thesis, is a first in the literature to the best of our knowledge. We have exploited the advantage that white dwarfs have over neutron stars, i.e., their EoS is well established. Hence, any change in the properties of white dwarfs can be solely attributed to the modification of the underlying gravity, unlike in neutron stars, where similar effects could be produced by invoking a different EoS. We have explored a popular, yet simple, model of f (R) gravity, known as the Starobinsky model (Starobinsky 1980) or R−squared model, which was originally pro-posed to explain inflation. Based on this model, we have first shown that modified gravity reproduces those results which are already explained in the paradigm of general relativity (and Newtonian framework), namely, low density white dwarfs in this context. This is a very important test of the modified gravity model and is furthermore necessary to constrain the underlying model parameter. Next, depending on the magnitude and sign of a single model parameter, we have not only obtained both highly super-Chandrasekhar and highly sub-Chandrasekhar limiting mass white dwarfs, but we have also established them as progenitors of the peculiar, over- and under-luminous SNeIa, respectively (Das & Mukhopadhyay 2015b). Thus, an effectively single underlying the-ory unifies the two apparently disjoint sub-classes of SNeIa, which have so far hugely puzzled astronomers. To summarize, in the first part of the thesis, we have established the enormous significance of magnetic fields in white dwarfs in revealing the existence of significantly super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs. These super-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs could be ideal progenitors of the peculiar, over-luminous SNeIa, which can, hence, be used as new standard candles of cosmic distance measurements. In the latter part of the thesis, we have established the importance of a modified theory of Einstein’s gravity in revealing both highly super- and highly sub-Chandrasekhar limiting mass white dwarfs. We have furthermore demonstrated how such a theory can serve as a missing link between the peculiar, super- and sub-Chandrasekhar SNeIa. Thus, the significance of the current thesis lies in the fact that it not only questions the uniqueness of the Chandrasekhar mass-limit for white dwarfs, but it also argues for the need of a modified theory of Einstein’s gravity to explain astrophysical observations.

Dans cette thèse nous étudions l'accélération des rayons cosmiques (RC), ces particules très énergétiques qui emplissent l'univers. Il est admis que les RC galactiques sont produits par accélération diffusive par onde de choc dans les restes de supernovae. La théorie linéaire explique la formation de spectres en loi de puissance, mais elle doit être modifiée du fait de la rétroaction des RC. Nous nous concentrons sur l'accélération répétée par chocs successifs, qui durcit les spectres, et qui dépend du transport des rayons cosmiques entre les chocs.<br />Pour cette étude nous avons développé un outil numérique qui couple l'évolution hydrodynamique du plasma et le transport cinétique des RC. Nous l'avons validé grâce à des résultats déjà connus. Pour résoudre toutes les échelles induites par la dépendance en énergie du coefficient de diffusion des RC nous avons implémenté une technique de grille adaptative. Pour réduire le temps de calcul nous avons aussi parallélisé notre code, dans la dimension d'énergie. Cela nous permet de présenter les premières simulations de l'accélération non-linéaire par chocs multiples. <br />Nous appliquons notre outil aux superbulles, les vastes structures chaudes et peu denses entourant les associations OB, car c'est probablement là que la plupart des supernovae explose en fait -- ce qui induit des modifications substantielles du modèle standard de production des RC galactiques. Plus précisément nous avons commencé à explorer les effets de chocs multiples, par une étude du rôle de RC pré-existants en amont d'une onde de choc. Pour finir nous passons en revue l'émission haute énergie des superbulles dans l'optique d'une production efficace de RC.

Some of the brightest and most energetic events in the Universe are associated with the death of stars. These stellar deaths power transient electromagnetic emission which are routinely observed on Earth. This dissertation presents our research on various such transients. Its topics includes, supernova remnants, kilonovae, gamma-ray bursts (GRBs): The "long'' type produced from core-collapse supernovae and the "short'' type associated with neutron star merger events. It also focuses on the disruption of stars by the tidal forces of supermassive black holes i.e., tidal disruption events (TDEs). We model the emission from these transients and compare them to observations in order to draw a number of conclusions and make predictions for future detections. For example, we find that the non-thermal emission from supernovae and kilonovae associated with GRBs can produce long term emission which may be detected as a re-brightening in the overall emission. The sharp cut off observed in some TDE flares can be caused by a pre-existing accretion disk present around a supermassive black hole, which is expected in active galactic nuclei. Our work successfully predicted the nature of the very first electromagnetic detection from a neutron star merger, and was able to reproduce the emission that had been observed for more than one hundred days after the merger. This dissertation also provides frameworks on how the observable features of these transients can be leveraged to probe the properties of the progenitor system and their environment. <br>

Les supernovae de type Ia (SNe Ia) sont un des piliers de la cosmologie observationnelle moderne, celles-ci étant de bonnes chandelles standards utilisables pour des mesures de distances dans l'univers. L'analyse cosmologique à partir des SNe Ia s'appuie sur les mesures d'objets à grands et petits décalages vers le rouge (z), et actuellement le faible nombre d'observations de ces derniers constitue une source majeure d'incertitude.<br /><br />Cette thèse s'inscrit dans le cadre de l'expérience SNfactory, qui a pour objectif l'observation de SNe Ia proches (0.03 < z < 0.08) grâce à un spectrographe de champ intégral, SNIFS. Le travail présenté a porté d'une part sur l'étalonnage de la voie photométrique de SNIFS, et d'autre part sur l'analyse des courbes de lumière spectrophotométriques issues des données de SNIFS. Ces études ont abouties à la création du premier diagramme d'Hubble spectrophotométrique pour des SNe Ia proches.<br /><br />Une chaîne d'extraction de rapports photométriques entre nuits, nécessaires pour l'étalonnage en flux des spectres, a été mise en oeuvre. Les erreurs systématiques de ces rapports ont été estimées comme étant inférieures à 2%, et les courbes de lumière spectrophotométriques d'étoiles standards montrent une précision de 5% pour l'étalonnage absolu en flux dans des conditions non-photométriques. Les résidus du diagramme d'Hubble obtenu présentent une dispersion plus petite que celui fait avec les données disponibles à ce jour. Un ajustement cosmologique sans K-correction montre une réduction supplémentaire de 5%, qui jusqu'à présent était indistinguable de la "dispersion intrinsèque" des SNe Ia.

L'actuelle génération de détecteurs de rayons gamma au TeV a permis d'étudier les sources les plus brillantes (Noyaux Actifs de Galaxies et restes de supernovae). Afin de détecter des objets moins lumineux, nous proposons des techniques d'observation et d'analyse améliorant la sensibilité des détecteurs que nous avons appliqués sur le détecteur CAT (Cerenkov Array at Themis). Le développement d'un maximum de vraisemblance a permis de doubler notre sensibilité sur la nébuleuse du Crabe près du transit. Cet outil permet désormais de rechercher des sources de position inconnue sans perte de sensibilité (aux effets instrumentaux près) et de tester des hypothèses sur la forme des extensions spatiales des émissions.<br> Grâce à ces techniques, nous avons détecté de faibles et rapides variations de flux de Mkn 421, découvert deux nouveaux blazars IES 1959+65 et IES 1426+42.8 qui est de faible luminosité et nous avons identifié deux blazars susceptibles d'émettre au TeV. La comparaison des spectres en énergie des blazars de même redshift (Mkn 421 et Mkn 501) permet de nous affranchir de l'absorption des gamma par l'infrarouge intergalactique (IIR) : Mkn 421 semble posséder un spectre avant absorption distinct d'une loi de puissance sur au moins une nuit. La dérivation d'informations plus précises sur les blazars dépendra des futures connaissances sur l'IIR et des observations simultanées multi-longueurs d'onde.<br> Ayant observé des restes de supernovae contenant des plérions (IC 443, CTA 1 et CTB 80), nous avons cherché en vain une émission provenant des plérions et de l'interaction de ces restes avec des nuages moléculaires grâce au maximum de vraisemblance. Les valeurs supérieures extraites sur les plérions ont été comparées avec des modèles d'émission électromagnétique d'un spectre d'électrons accélérés. Ces comparaisons nous ont amenées à nous interroger sur les hypothèses faites dans ces modèles et sur la pertinence des plérions choisis.

Depuis la découverte du phénomène d'oscillation des neutrinos par l'expérience Super-Kamiokande et de l'effet de résonance MSW comme solution au déficit de neutrinos solaires, l'étude de la propagation des neutrinos et de leur conversion de saveur dans un contexte astrophysique est un domaine très actif. La présente thèse se focalise sur les phénomènes de conversion de saveur des neutrinos de supernova. Dans un premier travail, nous avons réalisé le premier calcul complet incluant l'onde de choc et l'auto-interaction des neutrinos pour estimer le flux du fond diffus de neutrinos de supernovae (DSNB) arrivant sur Terre. Ce flux de neutrinos provient de toutes les supernovae qui ont explosé dans l'Univers visible. En variant la valeur du troisième angle !13 de la matrice de mélange UMNSP, nos résultats numériques ont montré que l'onde de choc a un impact significatif sur le flux du DSNB. Nous avons par la même occasion proposé un modèle simplifié qui prend en compte les effets de l'onde de choc et qui pourrait être utilisé pour des calculs futurs de flux du DSNB. Le deuxième travail de cette thèse s'est concentré sur la première dérivation analytique exacte de l'Hamiltonien de matière en présence de l'auto-interaction des neutrinos. Nous avons souligné, pour le cas à deux saveurs, le rôle important tenu par la phase de Dirac !& apparaissant dans la base de matière et nous avons établi une condition sur les éléments de l'Hamiltonien de saveur pour le début des oscillations bipolaires. Dans le troisième travail, utilisant le formalisme des vecteurs polarisations, nous avons identifié une correspondance entre les phénomènes de "spectral split" et de résonance magnétique: les énergies pour lesquelles les critères de résonance magnétique sont remplis subissent une conversion de saveur à l'endroit où le "spectral split" a lieu. Une étude préliminaire du cas à trois saveurs nous indique que la correspondance entre le "spectral split" et la résonance magnétique est toujours présente.

Le travail eectue pendant cette these s'inscrit dans le cadre de la mission SNAP (SuperNovae Acceleration Probe). Celle-ci se propose de determiner la nature de l'energie Noire par la combinaison de mesures d'un echantillon de supernovae lointaines de type Ia avec des mesures de cisaillement gravitationnel. Le satellite embarquera deux instruments : un imageur grand champ et un spectrographe d'une precision photometrique et spectroscopique jamais atteinte. L'objectif de cette these est d'etudier les proprietes des detecteurs infrarouges hybrides H2RG (produits par Teledyne) du spectrographe pour optimiser ses performances. Pour cela, le detecteur H2RG numero 40 a ete caracterise puis utilise dans un prototype de spectrographe. Le mode de traitement des donnees a egalement ete optimise pour diminuer le bruit de lecture et quantier l'impact du rayonnement cosmique. Ces aspects seront developpes dans cette these ainsi que leurs impacts sur les performances du spectrographe.