Ma thèse a pour but d'étudier l'impact des molécules immunosuppressives TGFβ et VEGF exprimées par les cellules tumorales dans la tolérance mise en place contre les tumeurs par les lymphocytes T régulateurs (Tregs). Pour cela, j'ai utilisé des lignées tumorales murines de mélanome B16 invalidées pour l'expression de TGFβ ou de VEGF par shRNA. J'ai pu observer que les invalidations induisent de profondes modifications de la réponse immunitaire contre les tumeurs, qui se traduisent par une forte diminution de son bras régulateur et une forte augmentation de son bras effecteur. Ces modifications sont le fait d'évènements très précoces et différents entre le VEGF et le TGFβ. Le ciblage simultané de TGFβ et de VEGF induit alors un rejet spontané des tumeurs chez 40% des animaux inoculés, et leur ciblage additionnel dans la stratégie thérapeutique utilisant les anticorps anti-PD-1 et anti-CTLA-4 induit un effet additif important. Nos résultats montrent donc que le VEGF et le TGFβ exprimés par les tumeurs sont des facteurs importants pour la tolérance immunitaire aux tumeurs et particulièrement pour la mobilisation des Tregs, et qu'il y a un fort rationnel à chercher à combiner leur ciblage avec les différentes stratégies thérapeutiques anti-tumorales existantes. / My thesis aims at studying the impact tumor-derived immunosuppressive molecules TGFβ and VEGF on the dominant tolerance establishment by regulatory T cells (Tregs). For this I used murine B16 melanoma tumor cell lines knocked-down by shRNA for the expression of TGFβ or VEGF. I observed that these silencings induce dramatic changes in the immune response against tumors, which result in a large decrease of its regulatory arm and a strong increase of its effector arm. These changes result from very early mechanisms that differ between VEGF and TGFβ silencings. Accordingly, simultaneous targeting of TGFβ and VEGF induces significant tumor rejection, and their additional targeting in the anti-PD-1 / anti-CTLA-4 therapeutic strategy brings obvious additive effect. Globally, our results show that tumor-derived VEGF and TGFβ are important factors for the mobilization of Tregs and more generally for immune tolerance to tumors, and that there is a strong rational to combine their targeting with the different existing anti-tumor therapies.

No description available.

Il est admis que le Transforming Growth Factor-bêta (TGF-ß) est athéroprotecteur. Son apport bénéfique dans l'athérosclérose semble être contrarié par l'Interleukine-1-bêta (IL-1ß) qui est l'archétype des cytokines pro-inflammatoires. Notre but est, d'une part, de comprendre la régulation transcriptionnelle du TGF-ß dans les cellules musculaires lisses vasculaires (CMLv) humaines, dans l'athérome carotidien humain à partir des données du transcriptome obtenues sur 32 patients à la fois dans les plaques athéromateuses (ATH) et dans le tissu avoisinant macroscopiquement sain (TMS) et, d'autre part, d'étudier l'antagonisme des effets du TGF-ß et de l'IL-1ß sur des CMLv en culture provenant du TMS. Nous avons abordé nos problématiques par deux approches : (1) une analyse bioinformatique de données transcriptomiques issues de biopuces. (2) une étude in vitro sur des CMLv de la carotide humaine. in vitro. Grace à l'analyse in silico nous avons montré que l'implication de KLF6 dans la transcription du TGFB1 était assez spécifique des cellules musculaires lises vasculaires (CMLv). Nos résultats permettent également de proposer de nouveaux FT potentiels, spécifiques des CMLv (SLC2A4RG, GABP et SALL2), qui pourraient favoriser le rôle athéroprotecteur de TGFB1 dans les CMLv de la carotide. Enfin, il semble qu'il existe un équilibre entre les FT activateurs ou inhibiteurs de l'expression de TGFB1 qui permet d'en moduler finement la transcription. Notre approche in vitro, à montre que l'IL-1ß induisait un phénotype inflammatoire associé à une activité élastolytique consécutive, pour l'essentiel, à l'augmentation de l'expression de la cathépsine S (CTSS). La neutralisation du TGF-ß endogène dé-réprime l'expression de la CTSS et exerce un effet additif à celui de l'IL-1ß sur l'expression de l'enzyme. En conclusion, l'expression du TGFB1 dans les CMLv étant soumise à un contrôle transcriptionnel spécifique du type cellulaire, il est envisageable de développer des approches pharmacologiques qui permettent de maintenir l'expression du TGFB1 dans la paroi artérielle au niveau requis pour qu'il y exerce ses effets athéroprotecteurs / It is accepted that the TGF-β is atheroprotective. Its beneficial contribution atherosclerosis seems to be opposed by IL -1β that is the archetype of the pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our goal is, first, to understand the transcriptional regulation of TGF-β in human vSMCs in carotid atherosclerosis from the transcriptomic data obtained from 32 patients in both atherosclerotic plaques (ATM) and in the adjacent macroscopically intact tissue (MIT) and, secondly, to study the antagonism of the effects of TGF-β and IL-1β on vSMCs cultured from MIT samples. We followed two approaches: (1) a bioinformatic analysis of transcriptomic data from the microarrays; (2) an in vitro study of the human vSMCs. In silico, we have shown that the involvement of KLF6 in the transcription of TGFB1 was specific to the vSMCs. Our results also identify potential new transcription factors (SLC2A4RG, GABP and SALL2) that are vSMC-specific and could promote the atheroprotective role of TGFB1 in carotid vSMCs. The balance between the FT activating or inhibiting the expression of TGFB1 allows the fine tuning of its transcription. Our in vitro approach showed that IL-1β induces in the vSMCs an inflammatory phenotype associated with an elastolytic activity resulting mainly from the increase in the expression of cathepsin S (CTSS). Neutralization of endogenous TGF-β in the vSMCs de-represses the expression of the CTSS and exerts an additive effect to that of IL-1β on the expression of the enzyme. In conclusion, the expression of TGFB1 in the vSMCs is submitted to a cell-specific transcriptional control. It is possible to develop pharmacological approaches that maintain the expression the expression of TGFB1 in the arterial wall at the level required allowing TGF-β1 to exert its atheroprotective effects

Procurando compreender o envolvimento da aldosterona (Aldo) na injúria renal, o objetivo deste projeto foi avaliar o efeito do tratamento crônico com Aldo sobre a função renal e a histologia das arteríolas renais, procurando correlacionar os achados com a expressão de genes reguladores do processo de fibrose e apoptose. A Aldo não alterou os parâmetros fisiológicos, PA, ritmo de filtração glomerular (estimado pela depuração plasmática de creatinina), proteinúria e a morfologia das arteríolas corticais. No entanto, aumentou a expressão do RNAm para TGF-β1, PAI-1 e BAX no tecido renal, além da contagem de células TUNEL positivas nos glomérulos. O antagonismo ao receptor MR (pelo uso da espironolactona) aboliu o efeito hormonal somente sobre a expressão do RNAm para BAX e a marcação do DNA degradado (TUNEL), enquanto que o antagonismo ao GR (pelo uso do RU 486) reduziu ou aboliu todos os efeitos da Aldo. Os resultados indicam que a Aldo pode induzir respostas precoces sobre o remodelamento do tecido renal, sem ainda comprometer a função renal ou alterar a PA. Essas respostas foram independentes da sobrecarga de sal e ocorreram por um mecanismo que envolveu os receptores MR e GR. / In order to understand the aldosterone (Aldo) involvement in renal injury, the objective of this project was to evaluate the effect of Aldo chronic treatment on renal function and renal arterioles histology, trying to correlate the findings with the regulatory genes of fibrosis and apoptosis. Aldo did not change the physiological parameters, BP, glomerular filtration rate (estimated by creatinina clearance), proteinuria and cortical arterioles morphology. However, Aldo increased mRNA expression for TGF-β1, PAI-1 and BAX in renal tissue, as well as TUNEL-positive cell count in glomeruli. MR receptor antagonism (by spironolactone) abolished only the hormonal effect on the mRNA expression for BAX and degraded DNA labeling (TUNEL); whereas GR antagonism (by RU 486) reduced or abolished all Aldo effects. The results indicated that Aldo can induce early responses on renal tissue remodeling, without altering renal function or BP. These responses were salt independent and involved MR and GR receptors.

Les invadosomes sont des structures d’invasion plastiques et dynamiques qui interagissent avec leur microenvironnement. Ils possèdent différentes fonctions telles que l’adhésion, la mécanotransduction ou encore la dégradation de la matrice extracellulaire (MEC). Mon travail de thèse s’est concentré sur i) l’étude globale de la composition des invadosomes par spectrométrie de masse et ii) sur l’impact d’éléments du microenvironnement dans la formation de ces structures d’invasion.i) Les invadosomes sont des complexes multi-protéiques dont tous les partenaires ne sont pas encore totalement identifiés. Au laboratoire, une nouvelle approche combinant la microdissection laser suivie d’une analyse par spectrométrie de masse, a été développée. Cette technique a été appliquée à l’étude des invadosomes rosettes. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence une nouvelle fonction associée aux invadosomes, en les définissants comme des sites actifs de traduction protéique. Les invadosomes cependant, sont des structures plastiques dont la formation et la morphologie sont modulées par différents éléments de l’environnement. Nous souhaitons à présent déterminer les partenaires communs et spécifiques entre les différentes organisations des invadosomes afin d’identifier les molécules impliquées dans cette plasticité.ii) La formation des invadosomes peut être induite par différents éléments du microenvironnement comme des facteurs de croissance ou encore la composition et la rigidité de la MEC. Le TGF-β est un facteur de croissance impliqué dans la formation des invadosomes, dans la promotion de la rigidité de la MEC et dans la fibrose hépatique pouvant mener au développement du carcinome hépatocellulaire. Nous avons alors étudié l’impact du TGF-β dans la formation des invadosomes linéaires en contexte de collagène de type I. Nous montrons que le TGF-β module la machinerie moléculaire associée aux invadosomes linéaires en induisant l’expression de DDR1 et MT1-MMP, ainsi que des éléments impliqués dans leur formation tels que le collagène I. Ces modulations sont dépendantes de la voie de signalisation canonique du TGF-β passant par Smad4 et favorisent la formation et l’activité des invadosomes linéaires. De plus, le TGF-β induit une surexpression de la LOXL2 qui est une enzyme de réticulation du collagène, augmentant la rigidité de la matrice ce qui favorise la formation des invadosomes.Les résultats obtenus durant ma thèse auront permis de mieux définir les éléments impliqués dans la composition et la formation des invadosomes. / Invadosomes are plastic and dynamic invasive structures interacting with the microenvironement. Those structures are involved in several functions as adhesion, mecanotransduction and degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). My PhD work focuses on i) the study of the invadosomes composition by mass spectrometry and ii) on the impact of microenvironmental elements on the formation of those invasive structures.i) Invadosomes are multi-protein complexes in which all partners are not yet fully identified. In the laboratory, a new approach combining laser micordissection followed by mass spectrometry analysis was developed. This technique has been applied to the study of invadosome rosettes. We have demontrasted a new function associated with indosomes, defining them as active sites of protein translation. Invadosomes, however, are plastic structures whose formation and morphology are modulated by different elements of the environment. We now wish to determine the common and specific partners between the different invadosomes organizations in order to identify the molecules involved in their plasticity.The invadosomes formation can be induced by different elements of the microenvironment such as growth factors or the composition and rigidity of the ECM. TGF-β is a growth factor involved in the invadosomes formation, in the ECM rigidity and in liver fibrosis that can lead to the development of hepatocellular carcinoma. We have studied the impact of TGF-β in the formation of linear invadosomes in the context of type I collagen. We show that TGF-β modulates the molecular machinery associated with linear invadosomes by inducing the expression of DDR1 and MT1-MMP, as well as elements involved in their formation, such as collagen I. These modulations are dependent on the TGF-β canonical signaling pathway through Smad4 and promote the formation and activity of linear invadosomes. In addition, TGF-β induces an overexpression of LOXL2, which is a collagen cross-linking enzyme, increasing the matrix stiffness and promotes the formation of these structures.Taken together, these results enabled us to better define the elements involved in the composition and formation of invadosomes.

La survie des patients atteints de cancer et traités avec des thérapies conventionnelles reste faible dans plusieurs types de tumeurs. Récemment, une nouvelle approche immunothérapeutique a été développée pour cibler le système immunitaire au lieu de la tumeur elle-même, afin de restaurer la fonctionnalité des cellules immunitaires et la destruction des cellules cancéreuses. L’immunothérapie ciblant le récepteur inhibiteur PD-1 occupe une place privilégiée dans les thérapies anticancéreuses en raison de sa haute spécificité et de sa faible toxicité par rapport aux thérapies conventionnelles. Cependant, le taux de réponse reste faible avec seulement 20 à 25% de patients répondant à une immunothérapie anti-PD-1. Il est donc important de comprendre les mécanismes associés à la résistance à ces thérapies et d’identifier des biomarqueurs prédictifs de réponse. L'expression du ligand de PD-1, PD-L1, sur les cellules tumorales, la charge mutationnelle tumorale et l'infiltration tumorale par les lymphocytes ont déjà été décrits, mais de nouveaux biomarqueurs sont nécessaires pour mieux déterminer la sous-population de patients susceptible de bénéficier de ces traitements. Au cours de ce travail, nous avons établi une cohorte de 118 patients atteints d'un cancer du poumon non à petites cellules (CBNPC) traités avec une immunothérapie anti-PD-1/PD-L1, et nous avons étudié l'expression de plusieurs biomarqueurs potentiels, en particulier les cellules T mémoires résidentes dans le tissu (TRM) CD8+CD103+. Ces cellules constituent un candidat potentiel car elles représentent une population privilégiée de lymphocytes T CD8 grâce à l’expression de PD-1 et une forte capacité cytotoxique vis-à-vis des cellules tumorales autologues suite à la neutralisation de l’interaction de PD-1 avec PD-L1. Nous montrons qu’une forte infiltration de tumeurs de CBNPC avec des cellules TRM corrèle à une survie sans progression plus élevée (PFS) et une réponse plus efficace à anti-PD-1 que les tumeurs avec une faible infiltration par des TRM. De plus, les tumeurs qui expriment fortement ICAM-1, un ligand de l’intégrine LFA-1 exprimée sur les lymphocytes T CD8, sont hautement infiltrées par des TRM. Par ailleurs, il est bien connu que le signal TGF-β est crucial pour l’induction de CD103 et la formation de TRM CD8+CD103+. Je me suis donc intéressée à l'activation du TGF-β par les intégrines αV exprimée par les cellules tumorales humaines et murines. À l'aide des modèles in vitro et in vivo, nous montrons que les cellules tumorales exprimant les intégrines αV activent le TGF-β et induisent l'expression de CD103 à la fois par les cellules T CD8+ provenant de cellules mononucléées du sang périphérique (PBMC) et de lymphocytes infiltrant la tumeur (TIL). L’expression plus faible de CD103 par les TIL CD8+ de souris greffées avec des tumeurs déficientes pour l’expression d'αV n'a pas d'effet sur le contrôle de la croissance tumorale. De manière intéressante, nous montrons dans des modèles de tumeurs déficientes pour l’expression d’αV, que le traitement avec des anticorps anti-PD-1 bloquants corrèle avec un meilleur contrôle de la croissance tumorale et une meilleure réponse à l'immunothérapie anti-PD-1 qui sont associés à une infiltration plus forte de TIL et un état d'activation plus élevé des TIL CD8+ exerçant une activité cytotoxique spécifique. De plus, une expression élevée de l'intégrine αV dans les tumeurs corrèle avec une réponse plus faible des patients atteints de CBNPC à une immunothérapie anti-PD-1/PD-L1. Ces données montrent comment trois marqueurs distincts, cellules TRM, ICAM-1 et les intégrines αV, régulent le microenvironnement tumoral et l’immunité T CD8 avec des implications potentielles pour potentialiser les réponses aux immunothérapies. / The survival of cancer patients treated with conventional therapies remains low in multiple cancers. Recently, a new immunotherapeutic approach has been developed to target the immune system instead of the tumor itself, in order to restore immune cell functions in cancer destruction. Immunotherapy targeting the T cell inhibitory receptor PD-1 occupies a privileged place in cancer therapy thanks to its high specificity and low toxicity compared to chemotherapies. However, the response rate remains low with only 20-25% of patients responding to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. An important issue is therefore to understand the mechanisms associated with resistance to these therapies and to identify the predictive biomarkers of response. The expression of the PD-1 ligand, PD-L1, on tumor cells, tumor mutational burden (TMB) and tumor infiltration by lymphocytes have been described to predict the response to immune checkpoint blockade (ICB). However, new biomarkers are needed to better determine patient subpopulation which could benefit from this treatment. To address this question, we established a cohort of 118 non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy and studied the expression of several potential biomarkers. Tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells are a potential candidate because they represent a distinct population of CD8+ T cells highly expressing integrin αEβ7 (CD103) and PD-1; and showing strong cytotoxic capacity towards autologous tumor cells upon neutralisation of PD-1/PD-L1 interaction. Results from the present study show that high infiltration of TRM cells in NSCLC tumors correlates with higher progression-free survival (PFS) and a better response to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. Moreover, tumors with high expression levels of ICAM-1, the ligand of integrin LFA-1 expressed on T cells, show higher TRM infiltration. TGF-β is a cytokine directly involved in CD103 induction on activated tumor-specific T cells. Therefore, I also investigated the role of αV integrins in activating TGF-β and thereby in controlling TRM differentiation and anti-tumor T cell immunity. Using human and mouse models, we show that tumor cells expressing αV integrins activate TGF-β, which can in turn induce expression of CD103 on CD8+ T cells in vitro on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and in vivo on tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL). However, lower CD103 expression on CD8+ TIL and thus CD103+ TRM cell formation in C57BL/6 mice engrafted with αV-lacking cancer cells had no effect on tumor growth control. Remarkably, αV-deficient tumors responded more effectively to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy than αV-efficient tumors and this response correlates with higher tumor infiltration by activated CD8+ T cells and stronger cytotoxic activity toward autologous cancer cells. Moreover, high expression of αV integrins in NSCLC tumors correlates with worse response to anti-PD-1/PD-L1 immunotherapy. These data show how three distinct markers, TRM cells, ICAM-1, and αV integrins regulate the tumor microenvironment and CD8+ T cell immunity, with potential implications in improving response to ICB immunotherapies.

Bone repair is modulated by different stimuli. There is evidence that the Transforming Growth Factor-beta (TGF-¿) super-family of cytokines have significant effects on bone structure by regulating the replication and differentiation of chondrocytes, osteoblasts and osteoclasts. There is also significant evidence that interactions with extracellular matrix molecules also influence cell behaviour. This study aimed at determining the role of the TGF-¿s, Collagen type I, Fibronectin and Laminin in bone cell behaviour. To do this MG63 bone cells were used to examine cell adhesion and alignment to different micro-contact printed ECM protein patterns of different widths. The study also aimed at examining how TGF-¿1, 2 and 3 and their solvent and carrier (HCl and BSA, respectively) effected cell surface interactions, cell morphology, cell proliferation and integrin expression. Finally, this study also aimed at examining how the TGF-¿s and their solvent and carrier influenced wound closure in an in vitro wound closure model and how TGF-¿s influence ECM secretion and integrin expression. 5, 10, 25, 50 and 100¿m wide repeat gratings of Collagen type I, Fibronectin and Laminin patterns were stamp patterned onto glass slides and plated with MG63 cells at 50,000 cells per coverslip. Cells on the fibronectin pattern attached and elongated soon after seeding, but did not adhere readily to collagen and laminin and appeared more rounded until 18hrs after seeding. Cells aligned significantly well on the 50¿m and 100¿m wide fibronectin patterned coverslips with mean angles of alignment ~7.87¿ ¿ 3.06SD and 6.45¿ ¿ 5.08SD, respectively, compared to those with smaller width (p<0.001). In comparison, cells aligned less readily to the other two ECM proteins, showing optimal alignments of 9.66¿ ¿ 4.18SD and 14.36¿ ¿ 1.57SD to the 50¿m wide collagen and laminin patterns, respectively. Differences in cell length mirrored those of alignment, with cells acquiring the greatest length when showing the greatest degree of alignment. The results indicate that MG63 cells responded significantly better to 50 and 100¿m wide fibronectin patterns compared to those with smaller width (p<0.001) indicating that the cells may attach mostly via fibronectin specific integrins. Cell surface attachment was examined via a trypsinisation assay in which the time taken to trypsinise cells from the surface provided a means of assessing the strength of attachment. The results indicated that treatment with the solvent (HCl), TGF-¿1, 2 and 3 all decreased cell attachment, but this effect was significantly greater in the case of HCl and TGF-¿3 (p<0.001). However, there were significant differences in trypsinisation rates between HCl and TGF-¿3 (p<0.001). The wound healing response to the TGF-¿s and their solvent/carrier was also investigated in 300¿m ± 10-30¿m SD wide model wounds induced in fully confluent monolayers of MG63 bone cells. The results indicated that TGF-¿3 and HCl significantly enhance wound closure when compared against negative controls, TGF-¿1 and TGF-¿2 treatment (p<0.001). It was also found that TGF-¿1 and TGF-¿2 treatment significantly improved wound closure rate in comparison to the controls (p<0.001). Experiments were performed to determine if the HCl effects on wound closure were dose dependent. Cells were incubated with 20¿M, 40¿M, 80¿M and 160¿M concentrations of HCl prior to wounding and wound closure rates were recorded. Wound closure was dependent on HCl dose with the 80¿M and 160¿M concentrations inducing increases in wound closure rates that were both significantly greater than those induced by 20¿M, 40¿M and control treatments (p<0.001). However, there were significant differences in wound closure between the 80¿M and 160¿M treatment groups after 30hrs of treatment (p<0.001). The effect of different TGF-¿ isomers and their combinations on proliferation rate and cell length of human bone cells were also assessed. The results suggest that cell morphology changes were observed significantly more in cells treated with TGF-¿(2+3) and TGF-¿(1+3) (p<0.001). Any cell treated with TGF-¿1, TGF-¿(1+2) and TGF-¿(1+2+3) showed significantly less elongation compared to the control and other TGF-¿ isomers. In terms of proliferation rate, TGF-¿3 and TGF-¿(2+3) increased cell numbers more than TGF-¿1, TGF-¿2 and other combinations. TGF-¿1 and its combinations did not show significant proliferation and attachment compared to the control due to perhaps its inhibitory effect in contact with human bone cells. Immunostaining indicated that treatment with TGF-¿3 significantly promoted the secretion of collagen type I and anti-human fibronectin in addition to integrin (¿3 and ¿1) expression. Statistically TGF-¿3 and their combinations showed significant differences in number of cells stained for collagen type I, anti-human fibronectin, ¿3 and ¿1integrin. Any cell treated with TGF-¿1 or any combination with TGF-¿1 showed significantly lower cell number stained with the same proteins and integrins (p<0.001). Imaging with WSPR allowed observation of the focal contacts without the need for immunostaining. WSPR images revealed guided cells with high contrast band like structures at the border of cells distal to the edge of guidance cue to which they aligned and with less concentrically formed band like features across the cell body. It is believed that the high contrast features are associated with the formation of focal contacts on the edge of the cells distal to the edge of fibronectin patterns, which suggests that cell guidance is aided by a decrease in cell attachment along a guidance feature. The WSPR experiments also indicated that TGF-¿s influenced the distribution of focal contacts. In the case of TGF-¿1 treated cells the bright high contrast regions were intense but only arranged around the periphery of the cell. In TGF-¿2 and TGF-¿3 cells the bright contrast regions were weaker but again mostly localised around the periphery. These findings supported the earlier trypsinisation results.

Articular cartilage is an avascular and flexible connective tissue found in joints. It produces a cushioning effect at the joints and provides low friction to protect the ends of the bones from wear and tear/damage. It has poor repair capacity and any injury can result pain and loss of mobility. One of the common forms of articular cartilage disease which has a huge impact on patient's life is arthritis. Research on cartilage cell/tissue engineering will help patients to improve their physical activity by replacing or treating the diseased/damaged cartilage tissue. Cartilage cell, called chondrocyte is embedded in the matrix (Lacunae) and has round shape in vivo. The in vitro monolayer culture of primary chondrocyte causes morphological change characterized as dedifferentiation. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), a cytokine superfamily, regulates cell function, including differentiation and proliferation. The effect of TGF-β1, 2, 3, and their manipulated forms in biological regulation of primary chondrocyte was investigated in this work. A novel method was developed to isolate and purify the primary chondrocytes from knee joint of neonate Sprague-Dawley rat, and the effect of some supplementations such as hyaluronic acid and antibiotics were also investigated to provide the most appropriate condition for in vitro culture of chondrocyte cells. Addition of 0.1mg/ml hyaluronic acid in chondrocyte culture media resulted an increase in primary chondrocyte proliferation and helped the cells to maintain chondrocytic morphology. TGF-β1, 2 and 3 caused chondrocytes to obtain fibroblastic phenotype, alongside an increase in apoptosis. The healing process of the wound closure assay of chondrocyte monolayers were slowed down by all three isoforms of TGF-β. All three types of TGF-β negatively affected the strength of chondrocyte adhesion. TGF-β1, 2 and 3 up regulated the expression of collagen type-II, but decreased synthesis of collagen type-I, Chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and laminin. They did not show any significant change in production of S-100 protein and fibronectin. TGF-β2, and 3 did not change expression of integrin-β1 (CD29), but TGF-β1 decreased the secretion of this adhesion protein. Manipulated TGF-β showed huge impact on formation of fibroblast like morphology of chondrocytes with chondrocytic phenotype. These isoforms also decreased the expression of laminin, chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and collagen type-I, but they increased production of collagen type-II and did not induce synthesis of fibronectin and S-100 protein. In addition, the strength of cell adhesion on solid surface was reduced by manipulated TGF-β. Only manipulated form of TGF-β1 and 2 could increase the proliferation rate. Manipulation of TGF-β did not up regulate the expression of integrin-β1 in planar culture system. The implications of this R&D work are that the manipulation of TGF-β by combination of TGF-β1, 2, and 3 can be utilized in production of superficial zone of cartilage and perichondrium. The collagen, fibronectin and hyaluronic acid could be recruited for the fabrication of a biodegradable scaffold that promotes chondrocyte growth for autologous chondrocyte implantation or for formation of cartilage.

The amphibian species Xenopus laevis, along with mouse and chicken is a very important model system, used widely to dissect the molecular intricacies of various aspects of vertebrate development. Study with Xenopus has clear advantages in terms of various technical considerations including the ease of handling early stage of embryos and due to the remarkable documentation of several early molecular events during development. The concept of inductive interactions between various cell types during early development was first revealed by the studies performed in Xenopus, and among the various factors proposed for mesoderm induction, the members of transforming growth factor-β (TGF- β) superfamily have been considered to be the most probable candidates. About forty different members of the TGF-β superfamily have been cloned and characterized from various organisms. The superfamily members like activins and BMPs have been studied extensively with respect to their functional role during development. While BMPs were assigned as candidates for inducing ventral mesoderm, activins oppose the role of BMPs by inducing dorsal mesoderm. Studies that helped in delineating their roles were performed using three approaches that utilized the ligands, receptors or down stream signaling components (Smads). All the three components were studied with respect to their endogenous expression pattern and effects of ectopic expressions of the wild type or dominant negative mutants. These approaches led to the accumulation of evidences supporting the importance of these signaling molecules. All the above mentioned studies were only possible due to the cloning and characterization of cDNAs of the various proteins involved in the signaling pathway including the ligands. TGF-β2 and 5 are the two isoforms of TGF-β cloned from the amphibian system. We have earlier cloned and characterized the promoter for TGF-β5 gene, which suggested possible regulation of this factor by tissue specific transcription factors. Messenger RNA in situ hybridization analysis to study the TGF-β5-expression pattern during Xenopus development, showed spatial and temporal expression pattern. The expression was confined to specific regions that include notochord, somites, and tail bud among others, in the various stages analyzed. This suggested a possible role for TGF-β5 in organogenesis during the amphibian development. To better understand the role of TGF-β in Xenopus development, studies to examine the specific receptor expression pattern for this growth factor is very essential. With the lack of any reports on cloning of TGF-β receptors from this system, the aim of the present study was to isolate and characterize the receptors for TGF-β from Xenopus laevis. PCR cloning using degenerate primers based on the conserved kinase domains of this class of receptors, coupled to library screenings enabled the identification of two novel receptor cDNAs of the TGF-β receptor superfamily. Characterization of the isolated cDNAs suggested that one of them codes for a type II receptor for TGF-β. Further the cDNAs were found to be ubiquitously expressed during development, as judged by RT-PCR analysis. The cloned cDNAs can now be employed as tools, to study the expression pattern by means of mRNA in situ hybridization, on the various developmental stage embryos and to perform studies using antisense and dominant negative mRNA injection experiments in vivo. Such studies will greatly assist in delineating the role of TGF-β ligands and receptors during amphibian development.

Articular cartilage is an avascular and flexible connective tissue found in joints. It produces a cushioning effect at the joints and provides low friction to protect the ends of the bones from wear and tear/damage. It has poor repair capacity and any injury can result pain and loss of mobility. One of the common forms of articular cartilage disease which has a huge impact on patient¿s life is arthritis. Research on cartilage cell/tissue engineering will help patients to improve their physical activity by replacing or treating the diseased/damaged cartilage tissue. Cartilage cell, called chondrocyte is embedded in the matrix (Lacunae) and has round shape in vivo. The in vitro monolayer culture of primary chondrocyte causes morphological change characterized as dedifferentiation. Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-¿), a cytokine superfamily, regulates cell function, including differentiation and proliferation. The effect of TGF-¿1, 2, 3, and their manipulated forms in biological regulation of primary chondrocyte was investigated in this work. A novel method was developed to isolate and purify the primary chondrocytes from knee joint of neonate Sprague-Dawley rat, and the effect of some supplementations such as hyaluronic acid and antibiotics were also investigated to provide the most appropriate condition for in vitro culture of chondrocyte cells. Addition of 0.1mg/ml hyaluronic acid in chondrocyte culture media resulted an increase in primary chondrocyte proliferation and helped the cells to maintain chondrocytic morphology. TGF-¿1, 2 and 3 caused chondrocytes to obtain fibroblastic phenotype, alongside an increase in apoptosis. The healing process of the wound closure assay of chondrocyte monolayers were slowed down by all three isoforms of TGF-¿. All three types of TGF-¿ negatively affected the strength of chondrocyte adhesion. TGF-¿1, 2 and 3 up regulated the expression of collagen type-II, but decreased synthesis of collagen type-I, Chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and laminin. They did not show any significant change in production of S-100 protein and fibronectin. TGF-¿2, and 3 did not change expression of integrin-¿1 (CD29), but TGF-¿1 decreased the secretion of this adhesion protein. Manipulated TGF-¿ showed huge impact on formation of fibroblast like morphology of chondrocytes with chondrocytic phenotype. These isoforms also decreased the expression of laminin, chondroitin sulfate glycoprotein, and collagen type-I, but they increased production of collagen type-II and did not induce synthesis of fibronectin and S-100 protein. In addition, the strength of cell adhesion on solid surface was reduced by manipulated TGF-¿. Only manipulated form of TGF-¿1 and 2 could increase the proliferation rate. Manipulation of TGF-¿ did not up regulate the expression of integrin-¿1in planar culture system. The implications of this R&D work are that the manipulation of TGF-¿ by combination of TGF-¿1, 2, and 3 can be utilized in production of superficial zone of cartilage and perichondrium. The collagen, fibronectin and hyaluronic acid could be recruited for the fabrication of a biodegradable scaffold that promotes chondrocyte growth for autologous chondrocyte implantation or for formation of cartilage.