Since many buildings in Canada were built prior to the advent of national and provincial energy codes and standards, quantifying building envelope thermal performance in existing buildings is an important step in identifying retrofit opportunities. Due to the lack of building codes or standards for existing buildings in Canada, development of a rapid and robust quantitative approach to evaluate and rank buildings for vertical envelope retrofits is required. Hence, this dissertation sought to develop quantitative approaches to evaluate existing building envelope thermal performance in Canada and beyond. Following current professional practices, in Chapter 1, a comprehensive study was conducted on 49 campus buildings at the University of Victoria (UVic) to evaluate potential energy savings from vertical envelope retrofits, and to further validate those savings through more detailed energy models and parametric analyses for a subset of buildings. To this end, the thermal performance of a building envelope was quantified based on its heat loss coefficient (UA), obtained from multiplying its surface area (A) by its thermal transmittance (U-value). Heat loss calculations were used as a metric to inform envelope rehabilitation prioritization, while considering other data such as age and physical condition in parallel. Archetype energy models for selected buildings were used to evaluate the impacts of envelope retrofits on energy and GHG savings. The outcomes of this study allowed the University to weigh the benefits of improved energy performance from envelope retrofits against associated capital cost expenditures. Also, the implemented methodology and studied parameters unveiled a new horizon in evaluating the thermal performance of existing building envelopes in Canada, where a building code for existing buildings has not yet been established. Considering the economic findings of the envelope retrofits studied, it was concluded that in the absence of an existing building energy code, the University would likely require additional incentives, such as higher utility costs, higher carbon taxes, or qualifying for utility incentive programs to justify improving existing building envelope performance on the basis of energy only. The strength of the proposed methodology in Chapter 1 was in its balance of effort and ultimate decision-making utility, where reasonable thermal bridging approximations based on simulation models for existing buildings can yield data accurate enough to inform a ranking exercise on a large breadth of subject buildings. However, since numerical models do not consider degradation of building materials, real moisture content, and errors associated with manufacturing and installation, actual building envelope thermal performance differs from 3D simulation models. To study this limitation, in-situ thermal assessments of building envelopes were performed to quantify their actual thermal performances. To this end, Chapters 2 to 4 of this dissertation attempted to determine the viability of an external infrared thermography (IRT) survey technique for quantification of heat losses through the opaque building envelope, and also explores its potential application in identifying and comparing sources of air leakage. The experiments were performed on wood-framed wall assemblies commonly used in Canada due to growing interest among designers, builders, and governments to encourage the use of wood as a building material. In these studies, (Chapter 2 to Chapter 4), thermal transmittances (U-values) of wall assemblies were estimated with external IRT and compared with 3D computer simulations. Furthermore, the impact of the accuracy of U-values estimated with IRT on the deviation of energy simulation outputs with metered data was examined. Finally, a novel relative quantitative infrared index (IRI) was proposed as a means to facilitate rapid evaluation and subsequent ranking of building envelope thermal performance. From the experiments in Chapters 2 & 3, it was found that the U-values obtained with IRT were comparable with simulated values suggesting IRT can be a reliable tool for estimating the thermal performance of wood-framed wall assemblies. Results also demonstrated that thermal imaging artefacts including nonlinear characteristics of infrared (IR) camera focal array, a.k.a. non-uniformity corrections (NUC) and vignetting could have a substantial influence on the accuracy of results, in particular energy model outputs. This limitation was resolved by introducing a practical approach where thermal images were taken from different incident angle. Overall, IRI was found to be a reliable metric for relative quantitative comparison of building envelope thermal performance regardless of boundary conditions. Moreover, outcomes of the IRT air leakage study in Chapter 4 indicated that combined qualitative and quantitative IRT approaches could potentially be implemented by practitioners to identify sources of air leakage and thermal bridges in buildings and compare their relative severity. Since blower door testing is gradually being introduced as a building code requirement to measure building envelope airtightness in an increasing number of Canadian jurisdictions, performing IRT simultaneously is potentially valuable exercise in this context. Ultimately, the methodologies outlined in Chapters 2 to 4 can help decision-makers to characterize building envelope retrofits from a performance perspective, and potentially serve as a basis for governments to develop policies to improve existing building energy performance. The methodologies in Chapters 2 to 4 prompted opportunities to utilize the emergent technology of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) equipped with an infrared camera for quick thermal assessments of building envelopes. The last chapter of this dissertation, Chapter 5, outlines advantages and limitations of aerial IRT (UAV-IRT) surveys compared to conventional stationary IRT. Furthermore, a set of best practices for UAV-IRT were presented to minimize dynamic measurement uncertainty. It was concluded that with the current IR camera technology, aerial surveys for quantitative thermal assessment of building envelope are not as accurate as with conventional infrared thermography; further investigations by manufacturers and researchers are recommended. / Graduate

Alors que les producteurs d'œufs canadiens font la transition des cages conventionnelles vers les systèmes de logement alternatifs, il est important de déterminer l’impact de ceux-ci sur le bien-être et les performances des poules pondeuses. L’objectif de cette étude était d’évaluer la prévalence de déviation du bréchet, de fracture du bréchet, de dermatite du coussinet plantaire et l’état du plumage dans les fermes commerciales du Québec, Canada. Le taux de ponte, la mortalité cumulée, la consommation alimentaire, l’épaisseur de la coquille, le poids de l’œuf, la force de la coquille, l’unité Haugh et la prévalence d’œufs sales et craqués ont été utilisés pour déterminer la performance du troupeau. L’utilisation de la thermographie infrarouge comme outil diagnostique pour les fractures du bréchet et les dermatites du coussinet plantaire a également été évaluée. Les données révèlent que les poules maintenues en volières présentent une prévalence de fracture du bréchet (P=0,011) et une mortalité (P=0,0049) plus élevée, en plus de produire des œufs avec une épaisseur de coquille supérieure comparativement aux poules maintenues en cages enrichies (P=0,0049). Une faible consommation alimentaire était corrélée avec une prévalence élevée de poules présentant une perte de plumes (P < 0,05) et une consommation alimentaire élevée était corrélée avec un poids d’œufs élevé (P < 0,05). Les systèmes de logement n’ont pas influencé les autres paramètres étudiés. Globalement, les volières impactent négativement les fractures du bréchet, les dermatites du coussinet plantaire ainsi que la mortalité et la thermographie infrarouge n’est pas un outil diagnostique fiable. / As Canadian egg farmers transition their flocks from conventional cages to alternative housing systems, it is important to evaluate the impact of the latter on the performance and welfare of laying hens. To this end, the present study investigates the prevalence of keel bone deviation, keel bone fracture, footpad dermatitis and feather coverage in commercial flocks in Quebec, Canada, housed in enriched cages and aviaries. Mean egg production, cumulative mortality, feed intake, shell thickness, egg weight, shell strength, Haugh unit, and the prevalence of cracked or dirty eggs were used as measures of flock performance. The present study also investigates the use of infrared thermography as a diagnostic tool for keel bone fractures and footpad dermatitis in hens. Our data show that hens housed in aviaries have a significantly higher prevalence of keel bone fracture (P=0.011) and cumulative mortality (P=0.0049) but that the egg shells of aviary hens are significantly thicker than their counterparts in enriched cages (P=0.0049). While thermal imaging could not distinguish between hens with and those without fractures, footpad temperatures were significantly higher in hens with severe dermatitis (P<0.01). Furthermore, a low feed intake positively correlated with damaged feather coverage (P<0.05), while high feed intake correlated with high egg weight (P<0.05). The other parameters studied were not influenced by the type of housing. Overall, aviary housing negatively impacted keel bone fractures, footpad dermatitis and mortality and infrared thermography is not a valid diagnostic tool for keel fracture and footpad dermatitis in hens.

Die subklinische Klauenrehe stellt als Ausgangspunkt für eine Vielzahl daraus resultierender Klauenerkrankungen einen wichtigen Faktor in Bezug auf Tierschutz und Wirtschaftlichkeit von Hochleistungsmilchkühen dar. Die Ätiologie und Pathogenese dieser komplizierten Klauenerkrankung ist bis heute noch nicht eindeutig geklärt. Eine Vielzahl von Faktoren kann die Klauenlederhaut im Sinne einer Reheentwicklung negativ beeinflussen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte der Einfluss der negativen Energiebilanz nach der Kalbung und eines daraus resultierenden Fettmobilisationssyndroms auf die Entwicklung rehetypischer Anzeichen an den Klauen untersucht werden. Weiterhin sollte geprüft werden, inwieweit die thermographische Untersuchung der Klauen nach der Kalbung, also dem predistinierten Zeitpunkt für die Entwicklung einer Klauenrehe, in der Lage ist, Aufschluss über den Entzündungszustand der Lederhaut zu geben und dementsprechend als frühdiagnostisches Mittel zur Erkennung der subklinischen Klauenrehe Anwendung finden kann. Die Temperaturverteilung über die einzelnen Hauptklauen und die Veränderung dieser im Laufe der Frühlaktation, sowie Unterschiede zwischen primiparen und multiparen Tieren wurde untersucht. Hierfür wurden die Klauen von 123 Kühen und Färsen bzw. Jungkühen aus drei Milchviehanlagen mit ähnlichen Jahresleistungen und verschiedenen Stallböden in der ersten Woche nach der Kalbung, sowie nach Vollendung des zweiten Laktationsmonats bezüglich des Vorliegens einer Lahmheit und, nach der Durchführung einer funktionellen Klauenpflege, auf Anzeichen der subklinischen Klauenrehe durch Vergabe eines Klauenscores untersucht und zusätzlich mittels Thermographie der Fußungsfläche analysiert. Um den Einfluss des Stoffwechsels auf die Reheentwicklung definieren zu können, erfolgten im Zeitraum von 8 Wochen vor der Kalbung bis 8 Wochen nach der Kalbung in regelmäßigen Abständen Messungen der Rückenfettdicke sowie Blutprobenentnahme zur Bestimmung der jeweiligen Freien-Fettsäuren- (FFS), ß-Hydroxybutyrat- (BHB) und Glucosekonzentrationen. Um den Einfluss anderer Stoffwechselentgleisungen abzugrenzen, wurden weiterhin die Parameter Lactat, Gesamtprotein, Albumin, Harnstoff, Calcium, Creatinkinase (CK), Aspartataminotransferase (ASAT) und Lactatdehydrogenase (LDH) bestimmt. Bei der Beurteilung von Lahmheit und Reheanzeichen stellte sich eine signifikante Zunahme letztgenannter nach dem zweiten Laktationsmonat dar. Die Lahmheitsinzidenz nahm dagegen leicht ab. Gummiböden hatten insgesamt einen positiven Effekt auf die Reheentwicklung. Jungkühe wiesen deutlich stärkere rehetypische Veränderungen (Hämorrhagien, Gelbverfärbungen im Horn, weiches Horn) auf als ältere Tiere. Die rehetypischen Veränderungen konzentrierten sich dabei bei allen Probanden auf die hinteren Lateralklauen. Die Thermographie zeigte gravierende Differenzen zwischen den Vorder- und Hintergliedmaßen, sowie zwischen Lateral- und Medialklauen. Die Hinterklauen waren deutlich (p<0,0001) wärmer als die Vorderklauen. Die Lateralklauen der Hintergliedmaßen zeigten sich wärmer als die Medialklauen, während es sich an den Vorderklauen tendenziell umgekehrt verhielt. Im Laktationsverlauf ließ sich eine leichte Zunahme der Differenzen beobachten, wobei sich die Absoluttemperaturen kaum unterschieden. Obwohl die Verteilung von rehetypischen Veränderungen dem Muster der Temperaturverteilung über die Hauptklauen entsprach (hintere Lateralklauen hatten die meisten rehetypischen Veränderungen und die höchsten Temperaturen), konnte keine eindeutige Korrelation zwischen der Klauentemperatur nach der Kalbung und den sichtbaren Reheveränderungen acht Wochen später gefunden werden. Die Temperaturverteilung auf den einzelnen Hauptklauen zeigte in den meisten Fällen (77,3 %) einen um ca. 2-3°C wärmeren Ballenbereich (Rusterholzstelle) im Vergleich zur Klauenspitze. Bei 16,5 % der Klauen waren beide Bereiche gleichwarm (Temperaturunterschied < 1°C) und bei einem geringen Anteil (6,2 %) zeigte sich die Spitze als wärmste Stelle an der Fußungsfläche. Zwischen der Höhe der Rückenfettdicke, der FFS-, BHB- und Glucosekonzentrationen und der Entwicklung einer subklinischen Klauenrehe ergaben sich keine aussagekräftigen Korrelationen. Tendenziell waren eher unterkonditionierte Tiere von Klauenveränderungen betroffen. Schlussfolgerung: Obwohl die Temperaturverteilung auf der Fußungsfläche dem Verteilungsmuster rehetypischer Veränderungen entsprach, war die Thermographie nicht als frühdiagnostisches Mittel zur Erkennung der subklinischen Klauenrehe geeignet. Die Temperaturen zwischen Vorder- und Hinterklauen sowie zwischen Lateral- und Medialklauen unterschieden sich deutlich. Eine direkte Beeinflussung der Klauen durch das Fettmobilisationssyndrom konnte in den hier durchgeführten Untersuchungen nicht gefunden werden.:1 EINLEITUNG 1 2 LITERATURÜBERSICHT 2 2.1 Anatomie der Klaue 2 2.1.1 Topographische Einteilung 2 2.1.2 Skelett 3 2.1.3 Haut 3 2.1.3.1 Unterhaut 3 2.1.3.2 Lederhaut 4 2.1.3.3 Oberhaut 4 2.1.4 Durchblutungsverhältnisse an der Klaue 5 2.1.4.1 Arterielle Versorgung 6 2.1.4.2 Venöse Versorgung 7 2.1.5 Druckverteilung auf die Klauen 8 2.2 Klauenrehe 9 2.2.1 Formen der Klauenrehe 9 2.2.1.1 Akute Klauenrehe 9 2.2.1.2 Subakute Klauenrehe 10 2.2.1.3 Chronische Klauenrehe 10 2.2.1.4 Subklinische Klauenrehe 11 2.2.2 Ätiologie der Klauenrehe 11 2.2.2.1 Fütterung 11 2.2.2.1.1 Kohlenhydratüberschuss und subklinische Pansenazidose (SARA) 11 2.2.2.1.2 Proteinüberversorgung 12 2.2.2.2 Haltung 13 2.2.2.2.1 Böden 13 2.2.2.2.2 Ethologie 13 2.2.2.3 Erkrankungen verschiedener Organsysteme 14 2.2.2.4 Alter 14 2.2.2.5 Genetik 15 2.2.2.6 Kalbung 15 2.2.3 Pathogenesetheorie zur Klauenrehe 16 2.3 Thermographie 19 2.3.1 Physikalische Grundlage und Einflussfaktoren 19 2.3.2 Wärmeverteilung über den Körper – Regulierung der Körpertemperatur 20 2.3.3 Interne Einflüsse auf die Körperoberflächentemperatur 20 2.3.4 Thermographie in der Veterinärmedizin 21 2.3.4.1 Thermographische Untersuchungen an Huf und Klaue in Bezug zu Rehe 22 2.4 Stoffwechsel 22 2.4.1 Energiestoffwechsel und Lipomobilisationssyndrom – potentielle Auswirkungen auf die Klauengesundheit 22 2.4.2 Weitere Stoffwechselparameter, welche verschiedene Erkrankungen mit eventuellem Einfluss auf die Klauengesundheit anzeigen 25 2.4.2.1 Eiweißstoffwechsel 25 2.4.2.2 Muskelstoffwechsel 26 2.4.2.3 Lactat 27 3 TIERE, MATERIAL UND METHODEN 28 3.1 Versuchsanordnung und Tiere 28 3.2 Haltung 28 3.3 Fütterung 29 3.3.1 Betrieb A 29 3.3.2 Betrieb B 29 3.3.3 Betrieb C 30 3.4 Probennahmen und Untersuchung der Klauen und Lahmheiten 30 3.4.1 Erfassung der Rückenfettdicke (RFD) 30 3.4.2 Blutproben 31 3.4.3 Klauenschnitt und –beurteilung 31 3.4.3.1 Beurteilung der Klauenfotographien 31 3.4.4 Thermographische Aufnahme der Klaue 33 3.4.4.1 Auswertung der thermographischen Aufnahmen 34 3.4.5 Beurteilung des Vorliegens einer klinischen Lahmheit 35 3.5 Klinisch-chemische Untersuchungen 35 3.6 Statistische Auswertung 37 4 ERGEBNISSE 38 4.1 Auswertung des Klauenscores und der klinischen Lahmheit 38 4.1.1 Klauenscore 38 4.1.1.1 Unterschiede zwischen Kühen und Färsen und zwischen den einzelnen Beständen 38 4.1.1.1.1 Klauenscore - Vergleich Kühe - Färsen 38 4.1.1.1.2 Klauenscore - Vergleich der 3 Bestände 39 4.1.1.1.3 Klauenscore - Vergleich Kühe – Färsen in den einzelnen Beständen 40 4.1.1.2 Verteilung des Klauenscores auf die einzelnen Klauen 41 4.1.1.2.1 Klauenscore- Vergleich Schulter- und Beckengliedmaße 41 4.1.1.2.2 Klauenscore - Vergleich Medial- und Lateralklauen 42 4.1.2 Lahmheit 43 4.1.2.1 Vergleich zwischen Kühen und Färsen und zwischen den Beständen 43 4.1.2.1.1 Lahmheit - Vergleich Kühe - Färsen 43 4.1.2.1.2 Lahmheit - Vergleich der 3 Bestände 44 4.1.2.2 Lahmheitsinzidenzen der 3 Herden 44 4.2 Auswertung des Einflusses von Erkrankungen verschiedner Organsysteme auf die Klauengesundheit 46 4.2.1 Auftreten verschiedener Erkrankungen 46 4.2.2 Zusammenhang zwischen Organerkrankungen und dem Klauenscore 46 4.2.3 Vergleich zwischen Kühen und Färsen und zwischen den Beständen 47 4.2.3.1 Erkrankungen verschiedener Organsysteme -Vergleich Kühe -Färsen 47 4.2.3.2 Erkrankungen verschiedener Organsysteme -Vergleich der 3 Bestände 48 4.3 Auswertung der Thermographie 49 4.3.1 Klauentemperatur - Einfluss der Umgebungstemperatur 49 4.3.2 Klauentemperatur - Vergleich von Schulter- und Beckengliedmaße sowie von Medial- und Lateralklaue 50 4.3.3 Vergleich zwischen Kühen und Färsen und zwischen den Beständen 51 4.3.3.1 Klauentemperatur - Vergleich Kühe - Färsen 51 4.3.3.2 Klauentemperatur - Vergleich der 3 Bestände 52 4.3.4 Temperaturverteilungsmuster auf der Klauensohle 53 4.3.4.1 Klauen mit wärmerem Ballenbereich im Vergleich zur Spitze 54 4.3.4.2 Klauen mit wärmerer Spitze im Vergleich zum Ballenbereich 55 4.3.5 Zusammenhang zwischen den Klauensohlentemperaturen und dem Klauenscore 56 4.3.6 Zusammenhang zwischen den Klauensohlentemperaturen und dem Vorliegen verschiedener Erkrankungen 57 4.4 Auswertung der Rückenfettdicke (RFD) 58 4.4.1 Entwicklung der RFD im Laktationsverlauf 58 4.4.2 Vergleich zwischen Kühen und Färsen und zwischen den Betrieben 59 4.4.2.1 RFD - Vergleich Kühe - Färsen 59 4.4.2.2 RFD - Vergleich der 3 Betriebe 60 4.4.3 Zusammenhang zwischen der RFD-Entwicklung und dem Klauenscore 61 4.5 Stoffwechsel 62 4.5.1 Verhalten der einzelnen Parameter im Laktationsverlauf 62 4.5.1.1 Freie Fettsäuren (FFS) 62 4.5.1.2 Glucose 63 4.5.1.3 ß-Hydroxybutyrat (BHB) 64 4.5.1.4 Gesamtprotein 65 4.5.1.5 Albumin 65 4.5.1.6 Harnstoff 65 4.5.1.7 Lactat 65 4.5.1.8 Creatinkinase (CK) 65 4.5.1.9 Lactatdehydrogenase (LDH) 65 4.5.1.10 Aspartataminotransferase (ASAT) 66 4.5.1.11 Calcium 66 4.5.1.12 Weitere Parameter - Bilirubin, anorganisches Phosphat, Creatinin, Cholesterol, γ-Glutamyltransferase (GGT), Glutamatdehydrogenase (GLDH) 66 4.5.2 Auswertung der Stoffwechselparameter in Bezug auf den Klauenscoreanstieg 67 4.5.2.1 Korrelationen zum Klauenscoreanstieg 67 4.5.2.2 Energiestoffwechselparameter bei Tieren innerhalb des Referenzbereiches und Tieren außerhalb des Referenzbereiches in der 1.Woche postpartum 68 4.5.2.2.1 Freie Fettsäuren (FFS) 68 4.5.2.2.2 ß-Hydroxybutyrat (BHB) 69 4.5.2.2.3 Glucose 70 4.5.2.2.4 Lactat 71 5 DISKUSSION 72 5.1 Beurteilung der Fütterung 72 5.2 Subklinische Klauenrehe und klinische Lahmheit 72 5.2.1 Subklinische Klauenrehe 72 5.2.2 Lahmheit 73 5.3 Einflüsse von Boden und Haltung auf die Entwicklung einer subklinischen Klauenrehe 74 5.4 Einflüsse von Erkrankungen verschiedener Organsysteme auf die Entwicklung einer subklinischen Klauenrehe 75 5.5 Thermographie 75 5.5.1 Aussagekraft der Thermographie der Klauensohlenoberflächen 75 5.5.2 Temperaturverteilung zwischen den einzelnen 8 Hauptklauen (Vorder- und Hinterklauen jeweils lateral und medial) 76 5.5.3 Unterschiede der Klauentemperaturen zwischen Kühen und Färsen und zwischen den Betrieben 77 5.5.4 Temperaturverteilung innerhalb der einzelnen Hauptklauen – Unterschiede zwischen Klauenspitze und Ballenbereich 78 5.6 Einflüsse der Körperkondition und Körperkonditionsentwicklung auf die Ausbildung einer subklinischen Klauenrehe 79 5.7 Stoffwechsel 79 5.7.1 Änderung der Stoffwechselparameter im Laktationsverlauf 79 5.7.1.1 Eiweißstoffwechsel und Enzyme 79 5.7.1.2 Mineralstoffwechsel 80 5.7.1.2.1 Calcium 80 5.7.1.3 Lactat 80 5.7.1.4 Bilirubin, anorganisches Phosphat, Creatinin, Cholesterol, γ-Glutamyltransferase (GGT), Glutamatdehydrogenase (GLDH) 80 5.7.1.5 Energiestoffwechsel 81 5.7.1.5.1 Freie Fettsäuren (FFS) 81 5.7.1.5.2 ß-Hydroxybutyrat (BHB) 81 5.7.1.5.3 Glucose 81 5.7.2 Energiestoffwechselentgleisung und Einflüsse auf die Entwicklung einer subklinischen Klauenrehe 82 6 ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 83 7 SUMMARY 85 8 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 87 ANHANG

<p>Highly loaded airfoils in low-pressure turbines (LPTs) suffer from laminar flow separation from the suction side of the airfoils aft of the throat of the passages. This separation harms the performance of the engine by reducing the power extraction from the turning air and ultimately reduces the overall turbine efficiency. Flow control techniques have been investigated to eliminate flow separation in aerodynamic surfaces to abate the losses associated with it. This Master of Science Thesis investigates the design, implementation and testing of pulsated injection actuation in a low-Reynolds flow over a wall-mounted hump.</p> <p>Furthermore, this Thesis expands on the existing expertise in the infrared (IR) thermography measurement technique at the Purdue Experimental Turbine Aerothermal Lab. This is done through an investigation of the factors affecting the IR measurement technique and the development of an optical instrument (borescope) to implement in an annular cascade wind tunnel. IR thermography is used on the wall-mounted hump blowdown tests to detect the separation point in the boundary layer using two techniques: by an investigation of the surface temperature distribution and an investigation of the heat transfer behavior at the surface. Finally, the borescope is commissioned through the first testing campaign of the LPT airfoils, and are processed to thermally investigate the passage.</p> <p>This thesis succeeds in expanding the IR capabilities within PETAL, and at demonstrating pulsated injection as an effective method to eliminate flow separation. Furthermore, IR successfully detects flow separation on the wall-mounted hump through the two methods presented, as well as detecting the boundary layer reattachment caused by the flow control technique. The limitations of the thermal methodology, as well as those of the optical probe are addressed, and the uncertainties in the measurements are quantified. Finally, steps to continue the studies are suggested at the end of each methodology chapter, including the potential redesign of the IR borescope to improve the quality of measurements. </p>

Purpose: this degree project investigates the homeowner’s knowledge about their energy use and the impact of using visualisation tools such as thermal imaging to enhance public engagement in energy conservation in building. Additionally, the study try to increase the understanding of how people's behavior affects the energy use in buildings. The method: the presented study is based on 12 participants who own a single-family house in central Sweden. Participation in this study involved responding to two questionnaires and conducting a thermography inspection. A methodology developed to replace a standard thermography inspection with a DIY themography survey. The study identified and filled the gap in the literature, by allowing house owners to carry out the thermographing inspection of their own buildings, free of charge and by themselves. The participants took part of a developed educational material that helps in increasing energy awareness and includes explanations about how to interpret the thermal images and provides suggestions for possible conservation measures. Finally, a data analyse carried out based on questionnairs, thermal images and communications with the house owners. The results: cold bridges are the most common cause of heat loss in the inspected single-family houses. Householders with older buildings who have long term plan to live in their building are willing to implement measures, while participants with newer buildings do not consider it as necessary. The infrared camera has been an effective tool for visualization of heat loss and attract attention. Many participants are surprised over the results. Conclusion: the study confirms that the infrared camera is an effective tool for heat loss visualization and can be used for enhancing public engagement in energy conservation in building. Thanks to this visualization, Swedish homeowners have gained an increased interest in energy-efficient measures such as additional insulation, window replacement and sun protection. The study has increased the general awareness and knowledge regarding energy efficiency in buildings.

The application of varnish, metal coats, and paint is a common practice for modifying or enhancing material properties. Metal coats are frequently used as protective layers against corrosion, heat, and wear, while also influencing characteristics like conductivity, weight, and production costs. Achieving the optimal thickness of the coating is critical, as a too-thin layer may not offer sufficient protection, while an overly thick layer adds unnecessary weight and increases expenses. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately measure the coating thickness without causing any damage. This project focuses on utilising flash pulse thermography, a non-invasive and non-destructive measuring technique, with three algorithms — Dynamical Thermal Tomography, Power Function, and Pulse Phase Thermography — to measure and differentiate between plates with known variations in the number of coating layers. The study also aims to identify the limiting factors associated with the experimental equipment and the characteristics of the thermography algorithms. The thickness calculations were performed both individually for each plate and simultaneously for multiple plates. The results demonstrate that Dynamical Thermal Tomography exhibits superior precision and strong linear correlation when measuring individual plates. On the other hand, the Power Function algorithm outperforms in effectively distinguishing between two plates simultaneously, while providing decent precision for individual plates. It is worth noting that the framerate of the camera significantly affects the performance and serves as the primary limiting factor in this specific experimental setup.Further investigations are necessary to obtain more conclusive results and determine the limitations of accuracy when measuring coating thickness.

[pt] A determinação da vida à fadiga para projetar estruturas e componentes mecânicos é extremamente importante. A curva S-N pode ser afetada por diferentes condições operacionais e alguns fatores são mais pronunciados no teste ultrassônico de fadiga, dependendo do material. A influência da alta frequência nos fenômenos de autoaquecimento e o efeito da frequência são discutidos. Um aspecto relevante em VHCF é o mecanismo de iniciação e propagação de trincas. Os fenômenos como olho de peixe e área fina granular (FGA) foram encontrados nas superfícies de fratura. Esta tese está dividida em 3 tópicos: evolução da temperatura, amplitude de deformação da microplasticidade e investigação da região FGA. Os materiais em estudo são os aços DIN 34CrNiMo6 e DIN 42CrMo4. O teste de fadiga ultrassônica foi realizado em diferentes condições de carregamento no modo intermitentes e acompanhado por câmera termográfica infravermelha. Esses resultados obtidos para a câmera termográfica foram usados para desenvolver um modelo de inteligência artificial usando aprendizado de máquina para prever a curva temperatura-número de ciclos. O modelo foi capaz de prever a temperatura e os valores do coeficiente de determinação estão acima de 0,98. Para prever a vida à fadiga, foram escolhidos parâmetros baseados em tensão, curva S-N tradicional, temperatura no início do teste, (razão de Rayleigh), dissipação de calor, Qcyc e gradiente de temperatura. A temperatura em estado estacionário foi atingida em aproximadamente 5E+04 ciclos em ambos os aços. Observa-se que o número de ciclos até a falha aumenta à medida que a inclinação da temperatura (fase I) e a dissipação de calor diminuem. (razão de Rayleigh) forneceu melhor concordância com os resultados experimentais seguido por Qcyc. Além disso, grãos ultrafinos na seção transversal do FGA entre 500 -700 nm dentro da superfície da fratura foram detectados pela análise FIB e EBSD. O local grain refinament foi escolhido como o melhor modelo para explicar a formação de FGA. As inclusões não metálicas Al2O3 foram responsáveis por todas as iniciações internas da trinca de fadiga. / [en] The determination of fatigue life to design structures and mechanical components is extremely important. The S-N curve can be affected by different operational conditions, and some factors are more pronounced under ultrasonic fatigue test, depending on the material. The influence of the high frequency in self-heating phenomena and frequency effect are discussed. A relevant aspect in VHCF is the mechanism of crack initiation and propagation. The fish-eye and fine granular area (FGA) phenomena were encountered on the fracture surfaces. This thesis is divided in 3 topics: temperature evolution, microplasticity strain amplitude, and investigation of the FGA region. The materials under study are DIN 34CrNiMo6 and DIN 42CrMo4 steel. Ultrasonic fatigue test was conducted at different intermittent driving and loading ratios, accompanied by an infrared thermographic camera. These results obtained by the thermographic camera were used to developed an artificial intelligence model using machine learning to predict the temperature-number of cycle curves based on the fatigue life. The model was able to predict the temperature and the coefficient of determination values to be above 0.98. In order to predict the fatigue life, parameters were selected based on stress, the traditional S-N curve, slope temperature at the beginning of the test, (Rayleigh ratio), heat dissipation, Qcyc, and gradient temperature. A steady state temperature was reached approximately in 5E+04 cycles with both steels. It is noticeable that the number of cycles to failure increases as slope temperature and heat dissipation decreases. (Rayleigh ratio) provided better agreement with the experimental results followed by Qcyc. Moreover, ultrafine grains in the cross–section of the FGA between 500 - 700 nm within the fracture surface were detected by FIB and EBSD analysis. Local grain refinement was choose the best model to explain FGA formation. The non-metallic inclusions were ultimately responsible for all internal crack initiations of Al2O3.

Additive manufacturing (AM) has largely improved design freedom compared with traditional manufacturing processes such as casting and milling. The layer-by-layer workflow makes it possible to produce objects with much more complex shapes and structures. This feature is of particular interest for turbine blade manufacturing since internal cooling channels with higher thermal efficiency can be achieved toimprove the overall efficiency of a gas turbine. One feature of AM, especially for Laser Power Bed Fusion (LPBF) working on metal powders, is the relatively large surface roughness (SR), which will affect both heat transfer and pressure loss. Its geometry is also unique with the very randomly distributed spherical-shaped structures. This randomness makes the correlations for heat transfer and pressure loss based on sand grain roughness not applicable anymore. More in-depth research is needed to investigate the roughness effects. In this study, the AM roughness is modelled by a statistical distribution of spheres with different diameters using an upscale ratio of 77.4. An infrared (IR) camera was used to record the temperature distribution on the rough plates subjected to heated airflow. Three Re in the turbulent region (15000, 20000, 25000) were tested and the data from the IR camera were used to calculate the heat transfer coefficient (HTC) on the rough plate through a 3D finite element calibration solver. The results of averaged HTC agree well with data of the real Inconel 939 AM channel from which the upscaled rough plates are modelled. Also, the general patterns of HTC distributions matched the fluid dynamics analysis. Moreover, the results of arranging smooth and rough plates together shows that the heat transfer enhancement from SR is due to both the induced turbulent flows and the increased surface area. / Additiv tillverkning har i hög grad förbättrat designfriheten jämfört med traditionella tillverkningsprocesser som gjutning och fräsning. Att bygga lager för lager gör det möjligt att tillverka föremål med mycket mer komplexa former och strukturer. Denna egenskap är av särskilt intresse för tillverkning av turbinblad eftersom bättre interna kylkanaler kan uppnås för att förbättra den totala verkningsgraden hos en gasturbin. En egenskap hos additiv tillverkning är den relativt stora ytojämnheten, som påverkar både värmeöverföring och tryckförlust. Dess geometri är också unik med mycket slumpmässigt fördelade sfäriskt formade strukturerna. Denna slumpmässighet gör att de korrelationer för värmeöverföring och tryckförlust som baseras på sandkornens grovlek inte längre är tillämpliga. Mer djupgående forskning behövs för att undersöka grovhetseffekterna. I den här studien modelleras den additiva tillverkningens grovhet med en statistisk fördelning av sfärer med olika diametrar med ett uppskalningsförhållande på 77,4. En infraröd (IR) kamera användes för att registrera temperaturfördelningen på de skrovliga plattorna som utsattes för ett uppvärmt luftflöde. Tre Re i det turbulenta området (15000, 20000, 25000) testades och data från IR-kameran användes för att beräkna värmeöverföringskoefficientenpå den grova plattan genom en 3D finita elementkalibreringslösare. Resultaten av den genomsnittliga värmeöverföringskoefficienten stämmer väl överens med data från den verkliga additivt tillverkade Inconel 939-kanalen från vilken de uppskaladeg rova plattorna är modellerade. Även de allmänna mönstren för fördelningen av värmeöverföringskoefficienter stämmer överens med den fluiddynamiska analysen. Dessutom visar resultaten av att arrangera släta och grova plattor tillsammans att värmeöverföringsförbättringen från ytjämnhet beror på både de inducerade turbulenta flödena och den ökade ytarean.

Through air drying (TAD) enables production of premium tissue products with increased softness, absorbency and bulk. On the other hand, the energy consumption of the TAD process is considerably higher than for conventional tissue drying alternatives. Previous studies on the TAD process have indicated that the drying rate for low grammage sheets is independent of the flow of air through the sheets.   The objective of this work has been to investigate and quantify how drying times and drying rates for low grammage sheets are affected by the addition of external web heating in a TAD process. Moist Eucalyptus and softwood sheets with grammages ranging from 15 to 60 g/m2 were dried in a laboratory process by an air flow through them and an IR-dryer with a variable power output. During drying, pressure drop and air flow were measured and an IR-camera recorded surface temperatures which enabled calculation of drying times and drying rates.   Using the IR-dryer to dry sheets shortened the drying time with at least 20 % and up to 60 % compared to sheets dried without IR-heating. Both pulp types and all grammages showed a linear relationship between drying times and the amount of evaporated water. Mass specific drying rates however, were very high for low grammage sheets and decreased rapidly with increasing grammage. Especially for low grammage sheets the drying rate had a very strong dependency on the IR-power and increased significantly with every increasing IR-power level. This finding implies that heat transfer could be a limiting factor when drying low grammage sheets in the TAD process. Another interesting phenomenon was observed for all grammages of the Eucalyptus sheets. Through these sheets the air flow rate increased with increasing IR-power, something that was not seen at all for the softwood sheets.   To summarize, adding external web heating to a TAD process resulted in a positive effect on drying times and drying rates, especially for low grammage sheets typical for the TAD process.

Coronary artery disease represents a leading cause of death worldwide, to which the coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) is the main method of treatment in advanced multiple vessel disease. The use of the internal mammary artery (IMA) as a graft insures an improved long-term survival, but impairment of chest wall perfusion often leads to surgical site infection and increased morbidity and mortality. Infrared thermography (IRT) has established itself in the past decades as a non-invasive diagnostic technique. The applications vary from veterinary to human medicine and from head to toe. In this study we used IRT in 42 patients receiving CABG to determine the changes in skin surface temperature preoperatively, two hours, 24 h and 6 days after surgery. The results showed a significant and independent drop of surface temperature 2 h after surgery on the whole surface of the chest wall, as well as a further reduction on the left side after harvesting the IMA. The temperature returned to normal after 24 h and remained so after 6 days. The study has shown that IRT is sufficiently sensitive to demonstrate the known, subtle reduction in chest wall perfusion associated with IMA harvesting.