Auditory rhythms play a central role in human culture and communication, through both speech and music. The ability to track and predict the organization of events in time helps humans optimize attention, perceive emotion, coordinate actions, and understand social affiliations. The importance of these functions has inspired substantial efforts to model rhythm perception. However, despite a wealth of evidence that pitch influences rhythm perception, with higher speech and music perceived as faster, leading theories and models of rhythm perception have yet to incorporate these effects of pitch. This thesis addresses several empirical questions that have stood in the way of integrating pitch into these models. Specifically, 1) whether the perception of higher pitches as faster generalizes across more than two octaves and above 1000 Hz, 2) whether pitch influences synchronized motor tempo, and 3) whether pitch–timing interactions are bidirectional, such that tempo changes also influence perceived pitch. To answer these questions, we present data from ten experiments including subjective tempo ratings, sensorimotor timing, temporal discrimination, and pitch discrimination tasks. Our results suggest the existence of two separate effects of pitch on perceived timing. First, we present evidence in Chapters 2 and 3 for a unidirectional, negative quadratic effect of absolute pitch on perceived tempo. In this effect, both subjective and sensorimotor tempo rise with pitch between 110 and 440 Hz, peak somewhere between 440 and 1760 Hz, and decrease with pitch above that peak. In Chapters 4 and 5, we present evidence for a bidirectional and approximately linear bias to perceive higher pitches as faster and earlier sounds as higher. We propose that the former effect is most likely innate and a product of the structure of the auditory system, whereas the latter is learned from world structure and originates from cue integration at a later stage of processing. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Our ability to understand rhythms and find “the beat” in music and speech is key to how we interact with the world and with one another. Rhythm and music are important in every known culture, and synchronizing to rhythms helps us form connections, coordinate, and communicate with others. This thesis explores how another aspect of music—pitch—changes how we hear the beat. Past research suggests music sounds faster to us when played at a higher pitch. Through our work, we discovered that the reverse is also true—musical pitch starts to sound higher as the rhythm speeds up. We also show that pitch changes how fast we move while trying to keep the beat. Studying these pitch and rhythm illusions helps us to better understand how our brains combine information about the melody and rhythm of music, and may help us to develop better medical alarms in the future.

Yes / A key question for temporal processing research is how the nervous system extracts event duration, despite a notable lack of neural structures dedicated to duration encoding. This is in stark contrast with the orderly arrangement of neurons tasked with spatial processing. In this study, we examine the linkage between the spatial and temporal domains. We use sensory adaptation techniques to generate after-effects where perceived duration is either compressed or expanded in the opposite direction to the adapting stimulus’ duration. Our results indicate that these after-effects are broadly tuned, extending over an area approximately five times the size of the stimulus. This region is directly related to the size of the adapting stimulus—the larger the adapting stimulus the greater the spatial spread of the aftereffect. We construct a simple model to test predictions based on overlapping adapted versus non-adapted neuronal populations and show that our effects cannot be explained by any single, fixed-scale neural filtering. Rather, our effects are best explained by a self-scaled mechanism underpinned by duration selective neurons that also pool spatial information across earlier stages of visual processing. / J.H. is supported by the Vision Research Trust (43069). N.W.R. is supported by a Wellcome Trust Research Career Development Fellowship (WT097387).

Yes / We investigated whether changes in low-level image characteristics, in this case spatial frequency, were capable of generating a well-known expansion in the perceived duration of an infrequent “oddball” stimulus relative to a repeatedly-presented “standard” stimulus. Our standard and oddball stimuli were Gabor patches that differed from each other in spatial frequency by two octaves. All stimuli were equated for visibility. Rather than the expected “subjective time expansion” found in previous studies, we obtained an equal and opposite expansion or contraction of perceived time dependent upon the spatial frequency relationship of the standard and oddball stimulus. Subsequent experiments using equi-visible stimuli reveal that mid-range spatial frequencies (ca. 2 c/deg) are consistently perceived as having longer durations than low (0.5 c/deg) or high (8 c/deg) spatial frequencies, despite having the same physical duration. Rather than forming a fixed proportion of baseline duration, this bias is constant in additive terms and implicates systematic variations in visual persistence across spatial frequency. Our results have implications for the widely cited finding that auditory stimuli are judged to be longer in duration than visual stimuli. / Wellcome Trust, UK, the Federation of Ophthalmic and Dispensing Opticians, UK, and the College of Optometrists, UK.

Yes / In conflict with historically dominant models of time perception, recent evidence suggests that the encoding of our environment’s temporal properties may not require a separate class of neurons whose raison d'être is the dedicated processing of temporal information. If true, it follows that temporal processing should be imbued with the known selectivity found within non-temporal neurons. In the current study, we tested this hypothesis for the processing of a poorly understood stimulus parameter: visual event duration. We used sensory adaptation techniques to generate duration aftereffects: bidirectional distortions of perceived duration. Presenting adapting and test durations to the same vs different eyes utilises the visual system’s anatomical progression from monocular, pre-cortical neurons to their binocular, cortical counterparts. Duration aftereffects exhibited robust inter-ocular transfer alongside a small but significant contribution from monocular mechanisms. We then used novel stimuli which provided duration information that was invisible to monocular neurons. These stimuli generated robust duration aftereffects which showed partial selectivity for adapt-test changes in retinal disparity. Our findings reveal distinct duration encoding mechanisms at monocular, depth-selective and depthinvariant stages of the visual hierarchy. / The Wellcome Trust [WT097387].

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Psychology / Gary L. Brase / This research tested a general mediation model which proposes that individual differences (e.g., impulsivity, delay discounting, and time orientation) mediate the relationship between time perception (one’s subjective experience of the passage of time relative to actual time) and intertemporal behavior (decision-making involving tradeoffs between costs and rewards in both the present and the future). Study I did not find evidence to support the general mediation model and found that time perception was only weakly correlated with individual differences and intertemporal behavior (average r = .06) . Study II found tentative support for the proposed mediation model: individual differences in impulsivity fully mediated the relationship between time perception and intertemporal behavior in 4 separate mediation models. Three additional mediation models met the assumptions of mediation, demonstrating indirect effects significantly different from zero, but did not fully mediate the relationship between time perception and intertemporal behavior. In general, the mediation models explored in Study II (both fully and partially mediated) suggest that self-report impulsivity mediates the relationship between time perception and intertemporal health behaviors, like hours of sleep slept per night, sociosexual orientation, and frequency of eating breakfast. The findings from Study II suggest that how time is perceived influences intertemporal behavior indirectly by influencing impulsivity. Guidelines to aid future research linking time perception to individual differences and intertemporal behavior are provided.

This research presents the design and evaluation of an intervention that introduces modification of time perceptions as one of the solutions to promote sustainable behaviours. It is demonstrated in this thesis that unnecessary energy use is often caused by temporal tensions, defined as the relation between actions to be performed and available time. This research proposes that it is possible to deliberately reduce temporal tensions, and this can motivate people to behave more sustainably. Persuasive technology and human-computer interaction provided the tools needed to manipulate time perceptions and therefore bring about changes in the specific behaviours that result in unnecessary energy usage. Previous studies indicate that behaviours play an important role in energy consumption. From the different domains of energy use that could be examined, cooking was chosen to be the platform where the studies on behaviour change and energy use would take place. How behaviours influence energy use motivated the design of empirical studies to understand behaviours related to domestic energy use and identify what are the determinants of these behaviours. Each determinant was related to a strategy to be included on a behaviour change intervention. A wider survey was developed to understand students acceptance of a set of proposed energy saving techniques, and resulted in a vast volume of information about user preferences and intentions to perform the suggested energy saving behaviours for cooking. It emerged that participants rushed into the cooking tasks without much deliberation, consequently not following preparation procedures and thus using more energy. Information gathered during the first studies also showed that participants behaviours were partially motivated by the need to speed up the cooking process in order to reduce boredom when they were waiting for the food to cook, consequently resulting in extra energy usage. The knowledge gathered from the preceding steps and a literature review informed the design of strategies to modify the non-sustainable behaviours and promote energy saving. A user-centred design process involving an idea generation session and scenario analysis was used to provide a set of strategies to be embedded in an intervention, containing the specific methods to tackle the correspondent determinants of behaviours. The specific needs of the cooking activity indicated that an electronic intervention was an adequate platform to be implemented and tested. Two high resolution working prototypes of the electronic interventions were developed as mobile phone applications. The final study comprised the evaluation of the proposed interventions in improving aspects of the cooking activity, the acceptance of the interventions and effectiveness in promoting energy saving.

The following thesis deals with psychological time, duration of time and primarily the subjective speed of time. In the theoretical part the theories of time perception and the theories of time acceleration with age are presented. In the empirical part a hypothesis about the acceleration of subjective time with age is tested. In contrast to popularly held view that time passes faster with increasing age, empirical data do not support this assumption. A questionnaire mapping the impressions of the speed of time was administered to a sample of 101 respondents from three age groups (adolescents, adults and seniors). The newly developed Subjective time speed inventory (ISRČ) and Zimbardo time perspective inventory (ZTPI) were also included. Most respondents agree with the statement that time seems to pass faster now than before and that time seems to pass fast. Testing the main research hypothesis about the acceleration of time with age, however, finds no significant differences in perceived speed of time along with age (Kruskal-Wallis test). Significant difference in relation to age was found only in the speed measurement by means of ISRČ (Kruskal-Wallis test). Adolescents achieved significantly higher raw score than adults and seniors by means of ISRČ (Mann-Whitney U test). This result implies that...

A consolidação da memória é um processo que ocorre ao longo do tempo, em que memórias recentes são cristalizadas em memória de longo prazo. As memórias recentes são vulneráveis e passíveis de esquecimento, principalmente na presença de fatores interferentes. Entretanto, a consolidação de eventos com conteúdo emocional sofre menos interferências do que o observado com eventos neutros. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar experimentalmente os efeitos da emoção e de uma tarefa de interferência sobre a consolidação do tempo na memória de longo prazo. Uma série de três experimentos foi conduzida em um procedimento de generalização temporal, no qual os participantes aprenderam uma duração padrão e imediatamente, ou após 24 horas, julgaram a duração padrão baseada em durações de comparação. No primeiro experimento, os participantes aprenderam uma duração padrão sob o efeito de três condições emocionais: ameaçadora, não ameaçadora e condição neutra, controle. Os julgamentos temporais de longo prazo mostraram que as durações foram melhor recordadas em uma condição emocional do que neutra; isto ocorreu em maior extensão para a condição ameaçadora do que para a condição não ameaçadora. No segundo experimento, foi investigado o processo de consolidação da duração e seus efeitos sobre julgamentos temporais. Uma tarefa de interferência foi introduzida em diferentes atrasos depois da aprendizagem inicial da duração padrão. Os resultados mostraram que os julgamentos temporais de longo prazo foram menos precisos quando a tarefa de interferência foi introduzida 30-45 minutos após a aprendizagem. Esta imprecisão não foi observada quando a memória foi testada imediatamente após a tarefa de interferência sendo encontrado um gradiente temporal do efeito perturbador da interferência dentro da primeira hora após a aprendizagem. O terceiro experimento foi conduzido para examinar o efeito da emoção na memória de longo prazo para duração e sua resistência contra os efeitos da interferência. Os participantes aprenderam uma duração padrão sob duas condições: uma ameaçadora e uma neutra; imediatamente após a aprendizagem, foi introduzida uma tarefa de interferência. Então, 24 horas após, eles julgaram se as durações de comparação eram ou não similares à duração padrão previamente aprendida. Os julgamentos temporais de longo prazo foram mais acurados quando os participantes aprenderam a duração padrão em uma condição emocional. Os resultados desta tese levam a conclusão que as emoções que despertam arousal facilitam a retenção do tempo na memória de longo prazo e são também resistentes aos efeitos da interferência. Por outro lado, a interferência perturba a consolidação do tempo e a memória da duração passa por um processo de consolidação que dura pelo menos uma hora. / Memory consolidation is a process that occurs over time in which new memories are crystallized in long-term memory. Recent memories are vulnerable and susceptible to forgetfulness, especially in the presence of interfering factors. However, emotional events are better retained in long-term memory than neutral events. The aim of this thesis was to experimentally investigate the effects of emotion and interference task on time consolidation in long-term memory. A set of three experiments were conducted in a temporal generalization procedure, in which participants learned a standard duration and immediately, or 24 hours later, they judged the standard duration based in duration comparisons. In experiment one, participants learned a standard duration under three emotional conditions: a threatening, a nonthreatening and a neutral control condition. The long-term temporal judgments showed that durations were recalled better in the emotional than in the neutral condition; this occurred to a greater extent in the threatening than in the nonthreatening condition. In experiment two, it was investigated the consolidation process for duration and its effect on the time judgment. An interference task was introduced at different delays after the initial learning of the standard duration. Results showed long-term temporal judgments less precise when the interference task was introduced 30-45 min after the learning. Disruption was not observed when the memory was tested immediately after the interference task and there was a temporal gradient of the disruptive interference effect within the first hour after learning. The experiment three was conducted to examine the effect of emotion on the long-term memory for duration and its resistance against interference effects. Participants learned a standard duration under two conditions: a threatening and a neutral condition; immediately after the learning, it was introduced an interference task. Then, 24 hours later, they judged whether or not comparison durations were similar to the previously learned standard duration. The long-term temporal judgments were more accurate when participants learned the standard duration in an emotional condition. The findings of this thesis led to the conclusion that arousing emotions facilitate the retention time in long-term memory and are also resistant against interference effects. Instead, the interference disrupts time consolidation, and memory duration undergoes a consolidation process that lasts at least one hour.

A tomada de decisão quase sempre envolve a dimensão temporal e no ser humano, como nos outros animais, há um viés em favorecer o presente, fenômeno chamado de desconto do futuro. Entender em que condições e contextos os vieses cognitivos como o desconto do futuro ocorrem nos ajuda a compreender o funcionamento da cognição humana, e pode fornecer caminhos para prevenir a sua ocorrência quando são prejudiciais. Há pouco consenso sobre os antecedentes psicológicos do desconto do futuro, e o nível em que ele ocorre varia conforme a espécie, o sexo, a idade, os indivíduos, e os diferentes contextos para o mesmo indivíduo. Há poucos estudos que investigam a relação entre escolhas intertemporais e a percepção subjetiva do tempo. Para compreender o fenômeno do desconto do futuro e os mecanismos psicológicos relacionados a ele, nesse estudo investigamos a influência da percepção subjetiva de tempo. Participaram 208 pessoas, 117 mulheres e 91 homens com idades entre 18 e 71 anos, que responderam a um questionário online, anônima e voluntariamente. Foram perguntados o gênero, a idade, escolaridade, estado civil, se o participante possuía ou não filhos e em seguida o participante respondia a quatro instrumentos: (1) Cenário do Cupom, para verificar a taxa de desconto do futuro, com quatro condições experimentais que corresponderam a diferentes modos de apresentação do intervalo de tempo de três meses, (2) Aversão ao Risco, para verificar a aversão ao risco e (3) Distância da data e (4) Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory ZTPI, para verificar a percepção subjetiva de tempo. Não foi encontrada diferença significativa na taxa de desconto do futuro entre as quatro condições experimentais, contudo foi encontrada uma correlação positiva entre taxa de desconto do futuro e distância subjetiva da data em geral, juntando-se os quatro grupos e independente da apresentação. As análises indicaram que as mulheres dessa amostra apresentam maior taxa de desconto do futuro, são mais avessas ao risco, e mais propensas à orientação temporal do futuro. Os jovens, apresentaram, com relação aos mais velhos, maior taxa de desconto do futuro e maior propensão ao tempo presente. Além da distância subjetiva temporal, as variáveis gênero e idade foram as únicas que correlacionaram com diferenças na taxa de desconto do futuro. O instrumento Cenário do cupom pode não 7 ter sido adequado para acessar a taxa de desconto do futuro dos participantes quando se considera o gênero, já que outros fatores podem ter causado o maior valor pedido, e não uma maior propensão ao presente / Every moment we have to decide, and during this process cognitive biases can occur. Decision making almost always includes the temporal dimension. Human beings and other animals prefer the present, phenomenon known as future discounting. There is almost no consensus about the psychological antecedents of future discounting. Its occurrence varies with the species, the individual, the gender, the age, and different contexts for the same individual. We can understand the functioning of human mind studying the cognitive biases and the context of their occurrence, moreover we can prevent their occurrence when they are prejudicial. There are not many studies on intertemporal choice and time perception, therefore we want to contribute to the literature, adding data and reflections in this area. We explored the time perception, trough four experimental conditions, and controlling gender, age, marital status and if the participant had children or not. We had 208 participants, 117 women and 91 men, ages varying from 18 and 71, which answered to an anonymous online questionnaire, voluntarily. There were four instruments, one to verify the discounting future rate (Gift certificate Scenario ) with four experimental conditions corresponding to four different ways of presenting the three months interval , one to verify risk aversion (Risk aversion), and two to verify time perception (Distance to the date, Zimbardo time perspective inventory). There was no difference in the four experimental conditions; women had a higher future discounting rate than men, and younger participants had a higher discounting rate than older participants. Women were more risk averse than men. Younger participants had more propensity to the present than older participants. Women had more propensity to the future than men. The higher the discounting rate, higher the subjective distance of the date. There were no influence of the way the date is present, neither the participant´s marital status or if the participant had children or not. Age and gender showed an influence in time perception and future discounting

Avaliamos a orientação da atenção visual de pacientes com Doença de Parkinson (DP), idosos e jovens saudáveis. Foram feitos cinco experimentos de Tempo de Reação (TR) e de Julgamento de Ordem Temporal (JOT), nos quais se avaliaram a atenção automática e voluntária e a percepção de ordem temporal. Os pacientes com DP apresentaram déficits em relação aos idosos na atenção voluntária, na percepção de ordem temporal e na flexibilidade mental, mas tiveram resultados semelhantes aos idosos na avaliação da atenção automática. A correlação entre os valores do TR e do JOT foi significativa entre os experimentos de TR e JOT, o que evidencia que os déficits dos DP e idosos têm origem num mecanismo em comum: a atenção. / We investigated the orienting of visual attention in patients with Parkinson?s disease (PD), healthy elderly and young subjects. Five Reaction Time (RT) and Temporal Order Judgment (TOJ) experiments were performed in order to evaluate automatic and voluntary attention and perception of temporal order. The PD patients exhibited a deficit when compared to the healthy elderly subjects in voluntary attention, perception of temporal order and mental flexibility, but had similar results in the automatic attention task. The correlation between the values obtained in RT and TOJ experiments was significant, which points towards a common mechanism underlying deficits of PD patients and effects of aging: attention.