A presente tese de doutorado tem como objetivo a análise da interface entre propriedade intelectual e direito da concorrência no contexto do enquadramento jurídico oferecido pelo Acordo sobre Aspectos de Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual Relacionados ao Comércio Acordo TRIPS da Organização Mundial do Comércio OMC. As disposições relevantes sobre concorrência foram incluídas no Artigo 8.2, que autoriza os Membros a adotarem medidas apropriadas para evitar abusos dos direitos de propriedade intelectual e práticas que restrinjam o comércio e a transferência internacional de tecnologia; no Artigo 40, que dispõe sobre o controle das práticas restritivas em acordos de licenciamento; e no Artigo 31(k), que trata do licenciamento compulsório de patentes para remediar práticas anticoncorrenciais. Essas disposições acabaram sendo incluídas no Acordo TRIPS como resultado de concessões feitas pelos países desenvolvidos aos países em desenvolvimento, em troca do fortalecimento dos padrões mínimos de proteção dos direitos de propriedade intelectual, podendo, portanto, ser consideradas no contexto das flexibilidades constantes no Acordo. No entanto, ainda que essas disposições representem um elemento essencial de equilíbrio, também deixaram importantes questões sem resposta. Além de serem vagas, não fornecem diretrizes adequadas para os países em desenvolvimento implementarem políticas públicas nacionais para coibir práticas restritivas da concorrência relacionadas à exploração de direitos de propriedade intelectual. Assim, enquanto os países mais industrializados possuem autoridades antitruste e tribunais com sólida experiência e recursos necessários para lidar com questões envolvendo a interface entre propriedade intelectual e direito da concorrência, os países em desenvolvimento, em sua maioria, mesmo possuindo leis antitruste nacionais, ainda não adquiriram a experiência e capacitação para tratar de tema tão complexo. Desse modo, a tese deverá abordar as circunstâncias nas quais eventuais abusos de direitos de propriedade intelectual podem restringir a livre concorrência nos mercados, com ênfase nas práticas restritivas em acordos de licenciamento, pools de patentes e licenças cruzadas, bem como nas condutas unilaterais de exclusão relacionadas à exploração desses direitos. Para tanto, propõe-se a interpretação dos dispositivos do TRIPS sobre concorrência a partir da experiência prática das autoridades antitruste e tribunais dos Estados Unidos e da União Europeia. Será também abordada a relação entre propriedade intelectual e direito da concorrência no contexto do ordenamento jurídico-constitucional brasileiro, especialmente a partir da Lei n.º 12.529/2011, nova lei antitruste que altera e define o Sistema Brasileiro de Defesa da Concorrência (SBDC), e de casos recentes julgados pelo Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica (CADE). Ao final, serão analisadas as possíveis abordagens que poderiam ser adotadas pelos países em desenvolvimento na implementação de políticas de concorrência nacionais, que sejam eficazes e compatíveis com o Acordo TRIPS, de modo a contribuir com eventuais discussões futuras sobre o tema em foros internacionais. / The purpose of this thesis is to assess the interface between intellectual property and competition law in light of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPS Agreement of the World Trade Organization WTO. The provisions regarding competition were included in Article 8.2, which authorizes the Members to adopt appropriated measures to prevent abuses of intellectual property rights by right holders or practices which restrain trade and international transfer of technology; in the Article 40, which deals with the control of anti-competitive practices in contractual licenses; and Article 31(k), which deals with the compulsory licensing of patents to remedy a practice considered to be anti-competitive. These provisions were included in the TRIPS Agreement as a result of concessions made by the developed countries to the developed countries, in exchange for the strengthening of the minimal standards for the protection of intellectual property rights. Therefore, these provisions can be considered within the context of the flexibilities set forth in the Agreement. However, even if such provisions represent an essential element of balance, they also left important issues unanswered. Besides being vague, they do not provide adequate guidance for emerging countries to implement national public policies to prevent restrictive practices related with the exploitation of intellectual property rights. As a consequence, whereas the most industrialized countries already have antitrust authorities and courts with strong experience and the necessary resources to deal with issues related with the interface between intellectual property and competition law, most of the emerging countries, even those which have national antitrust laws, have not yet acquired experience and technical capacity to deal with such a complex matter. Thus, the thesis should tackle the circumstances in which possible abuses of intellectual property rights might restrain competition, especially with regard to restrictive practices in licensing agreements, cross-licenses and patent pools, and unilateral exclusionary abuses related with the exploitation of such rights. In this sense, it is proposed to interpret the provisions of TRIPS on competition from the practical experience of the antitrust authorities and courts of the United States and the European Union. We should also tackle the relationship between intellectual property and competition laws in the ambit of the Brazilian legal and constitutional system, especially with regard to Law No. 12.529/2011, the new Brazilian antitrust law, which alters and defines the Brazilian Defense of Competition System SBDC (Sistema Brasileiro de Defesa da Concorrência SBCD), as well as with regard to recent cases judged by the Administrative Counsel of Economic Defense CADE (Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica CADE). Finally, it will be examined possible approaches that could be adopted by developing countries in implementing national competition policies, effective and compatible with the TRIPS Agreement, so as to contribute to future discussions on the issue in international fora.

A dissertação propõe-se a investigar os dispositivos do Acordo Sobre os Aspectos dos Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual Relacionados com o Comércio Acordo TRIPS que se relacionam com o direito da concorrência, especialmente com relação a seus artigos 8.2 e 40, bem como analisar acerca da interface entre o direito de propriedade intelectual e o direito da concorrência. Os abusos dos direitos de propriedade intelectual e as práticas que limitam de maneira injustificável o comércio ou que afetam adversamente a transferência internacional de tecnologia são práticas e condutas relacionadas aos direitos de propriedade intelectual que estão indicadas no artigo 8.2 do Acordo TRIPS e são passíveis de ser objeto de análise do ponto de vista concorrencial, à medida que restringem a concorrência e a livre iniciativa e, consequentemente, podem ser necessárias medidas apropriadas para sua prevenção pelos membros da OMC, sobretudo aquelas determinadas pelo direito da concorrência. De forma a complementar o princípio previsto no artigo 8.2 do Acordo TRIPS, entre essas práticas e condutas, o artigo 40.1 do Acordo TRIPS expressamente menciona aquelas de licenciamento relativas aos direitos de propriedade intelectual que restringem a concorrência e que podem afetar adversamente o comércio e impedir a transferência e disseminação de tecnologia, sendo permitido ao país membro da Organização Mundial do Comércio OMC (art. 40.2 do Acordo TRIPS) especificar em sua legislação condições ou práticas de licenciamento que possam, em determinados casos, constituir um abuso dos direitos de propriedade intelectual que tenham efeitos adversos sobre a concorrência no mercado relevante, podendo adotar, de forma compatível com outras disposições do Acordo TRIPS, medidas apropriadas para evitar ou controlar tais práticas, que podem incluir, por exemplo, condições de licença exclusiva, condições que impeçam impugnações da validade e pacotes de licenças coercitivas. No primeiro capítulo, pretende-se expor breves comentários ao direito da propriedade intelectual, necessários à avaliação de sua interface com o direito da concorrência, diferenciando-se os principais conceitos e terminologias utilizados no direito da propriedade intelectual. Uma apresentação da forma pela qual o direito da propriedade intelectual e seus respectivos institutos, quais sejam, as invenções, modelos de utilidade, desenhos industriais, marcas, indicações geográficas, direitos autorais e direitos sui generis, tais como cultivares e topografia dos circuitos integrados, podem por esse direito ser protegidos. No segundo capítulo, propõe-se a analisar a interface entre o direito da propriedade intelectual e o direito concorrencial, com a pretensão de esclarecer de que forma algumas teorias econômicas relacionam-se com o direito da propriedade intelectual, buscando estudar a maneira que algumas práticas e condutas envolvendo o direito da propriedade intelectual podem afetar o direito da concorrência, isto é, de que forma essas práticas e condutas podem restringir a concorrência, seja por via de concentração, seja por via de cooperação econômica ou por via de condutas anticoncorrenciais. O estudo concorrencial das práticas e condutas envolvendo o direito da propriedade intelectual, por sua vez, restringe-se a identificar exemplos reunidos durante esta pesquisa de condutas que, per se ou pela regra da razão, afetam de forma direta ou indireta a concorrência e a livre iniciativa, com ênfase às experiências norte-americanas e europeias, tendo em vista o maior avanço do tema nesses sistemas e da sua influência no direito brasileiro. No terceiro e quarto capítulos, há a intenção de verificar de que forma o direito da concorrência se relaciona com a proteção internacional da propriedade intelectual. A forma de tratamento do direito da concorrência no Acordo TRIPS a partir das análises realizadas nos capítulos iniciais será estudada e analisada, expondo sua aplicabilidade e a forma pela qual pode ser interpretada, buscando identificar uma melhor maneira de utilizá-la, especialmente pelos países em desenvolvimento entre os quais, insere-se o Brasil , que por ventura se depararem com condutas ou práticas anticoncorrenciais envolvendo direitos da propriedade intelectual. No Brasil, tanto a Lei de Propriedade Intelectual como a Lei Antitruste preveem sanção para o abuso de poder econômico realizado por meio do uso de direitos de propriedade intelectual; entretanto, o desenvolvimento do tema ainda não é expressivo na doutrina brasileira com poucos estudos dedicados ao tema e praticamente inexistente no judiciário e autoridades responsáveis pela defesa da concorrência, o que torna de extrema utilidade o aprofundamento proposto. / La dissertation se propose détudier les dispositions de lAccord sur les Aspects des droits de propriété intellectuelle qui touchent au commerce - Accord sur les ADPIC qui se rapportent au droit de la concurrence, notamment les articles 8.2 et 40, ainsi que linterface entre le droit de propriété intellectuelle et droit de la concurrence. Les abus des droits de propriété intellectuelle et les pratiques qui restreignent de manière déraisonnable le commerce ou sont préjudiciables au transfert international de technologie sont les pratiques et les comportements liés aux droits de propriété intellectuelle qui figurent dans larticle 8.2 de lAccord sur les ADPIC et qui sont susceptibles dêtre objet de lanalyse du point de vue concurrentiel, car ils restreignent la concurrence et la libre entreprise; par conséquent, des mesures appropriées peuvent être nécessaires pour leur prévention par les membres de lOMC, en particulier ceux qui sont déterminés par les lois sur la concurrence. Afin de compléter le principe prévu par larticle 8.2 de lAccord sur les ADPIC, parmi ces pratiques et ces comportements, larticle 40.1 de lAccord sur les ADPIC mentionne explicitement ceux relatifs aux licences touchant aux droits de propriété intellectuelle qui limitent la concurrence et peuvent avoir des effets préjudiciables sur les échanges et entraver le transfert et la diffusion de technologie, étant permis au pays membre de lOrganisation mondiale du commerce - OMC (article 40.2 de lAccord sur les ADPIC) de préciser dans sa législation les pratiques ou les conditions en matière de concession de licences qui pourront, dans des cas particuliers, constituer un usage abusif de droits de propriété intellectuelle ayant un effet préjudiciable sur la concurrence sur le marché considéré, et adopter, conformément aux autres dispositions de lAccord sur les ADPIC, des mesures appropriées pour prévenir ou contrôler ces pratiques, qui peuvent comprendre, par exemple, des clauses de licences exclusives, des conditions empêchant la contestation de la validité et un régime coercitif de licences groupées. Dans le premier chapitre, nous avons lintention de faire de brefs commentaires sur le droit de propriété intellectuelle, nécessaires à lévaluation de son interface avec le droit de la concurrence, en faisant la différence entre les principaux concepts et les terminologies utilisées en droit de propriété intellectuelle. Une présentation de la façon selon laquelle le droit de propriété intellectuelle et de ses instituts respectifs, à savoir, les inventions, les modèles dutilité, les dessins industriels, les marques, les indications géographiques, les droits dauteur et les droits sui generis, tels que les cultivars et la topographie des circuits intégrés, peuvent être protégés par ce droit. Dans le deuxième chapitre, nous proposons dexaminer linterface entre droit de propriété intellectuelle et le droit de la concurrence, visant expliquer comment certaines théories économiques soccupent du droit de propriété intellectuelle, cherchant à étudier la façon comment certaines pratiques et comportements impliquant le droit de propriété intellectuelle peuvent affecter le droit de la concurrence, cest-à-dire, comment ces pratiques et ces comportements peuvent restreindre la concurrence, soit par concentration, soit par coopération économique ou encore par des pratiques anticoncurrentielles. A son tour, létude des pratiques et des comportements concurrentiels impliquant le droit de propriété intellectuelle se limitera à identifier des exemples recueillis au cours de cette recherche de comportements, qui, per se ou bien suivant la règle de la raison, affectent directement ou indirectement la concurrence et la libre initiative, en mettant laccent sur les expériences américaines et européennes, étant donné lavancement de la thématique dans ces systèmes et de son influence dans le droit brésilien. Dans les troisième et quatrième chapitres nous avons lintention de vérifier la manière comment la concurrence se rapporte à la protection internationale de la propriété intellectuelle. Nous étudierons et analyserons la forme de traitement du droit de la concurrence dans lAccord sur les ADPIC à partir des analyses effectuées dans les premiers chapitres, en montrant son applicabilité et la manière selon laquelle elle peut être interprétée dans le but didentifier une meilleure façon de lutiliser, en particulier par les pays en développement dont le Brésil fait partie qui se retrouvent face à des pratiques et des comportements anticoncurrentiels impliquant les droits de propriété intellectuelle. Au Brésil, aussi bien la Loi de propriété intellectuelle que la Loi antitrust prévoient des sanctions pour abus de pouvoir économique réalisés par lutilisation des droits de propriété intellectuelle; cependant, son développement nest pas encore significatif dans la doctrine brésilienne il y a peu détudes consacrées à ce thème et est pratiquement absent dans les tribunaux et auprès des autorités responsables de la protection de concurrence, ce qui fait en sorte que lapprofondissement proposé sur ce thème soit extrêmement utile.

Eastern and southern Africa, a region that is home to a twentieth of the world’s population, accounts for half the number of people living with HIV globally, including an increasingly drug resistant Tuberculosis epidemic. The high mortality and untold human suffering associated with HIV in the region during the late 1990s and early 2000s has mostly been mitigated by a rapid scale up of national HIV treatment programmes over the past decade, largely made possible by generic competition from Indian pharmaceutical manufacturers. The sustainability of treatment programmes in the region depends on various factors. National HIV treatment programmes are largely financed by multilateral donor mechanisms which are facing a decline in funding for the first time in the history of the AIDS response. Indian pharmaceutical manufacturers are increasingly encountering patent barriers stemming from the country’s implementation of its intellectual property obligations under the World Trade Organisation’s TRIPS Agreement. As eastern and southern African countries increasingly focus on local pharmaceutical production and south-south co-operation as vehicles for treatment sustainability, this thesis examines the extent to which public health related flexibilities present in the TRIPS Agreement can be used to as enablers of affordable treatment, both in domestic intellectual property legislation, and relevant regional platforms. The thesis undertakes case studies of the policy and legislative environment in two countries with very different profiles: The United Republic of Tanzania as a least developed country with a nascent local pharmaceutical manufacturing industry and South Africa, as the country with the largest pharmaceutical industry on the continent present the full range of country profiles in the region. Conclusions are drawn regarding the optimization of legislative and policy frameworks to facilitate both the importation and local production of health technologies. Finally, the thesis explores challenges and opportunities facing various south-south co-operation initiatives in the region.

Geographical indications assumed prominence in terms of juridical development and economic importance with their inclusion in the TRIPS Agreement. Due to their nexus with place of origin, the importance of agricultural GIs has increased manifold. Pakistan has a strong agriculture-based economy. It has many valuable GIs, like Basmati rice, with significant trade worth billions of dollars. Nevertheless, not a single GI has been registered in Pakistan due to factors such as the inadequacies in the present system of protection of GIs in Pakistan, institutional weaknesses and the absence of an active role of the state. This thesis argues that a sui generis law for the regulation of agricultural GIs will facilitate better protection of GIs and economic development in Pakistan provided that it is also accompanied by the necessary institutional reforms. Pakistan is making efforts to enact a separate GI law for better protection of its GIs. However, there are administrative hurdles and institutional incapacities in Pakistan which need to be reformed. Examples have been taken from the sui generis laws of the EU and India in the discussions on legislative and institutional reforms in Pakistan. The EU and Indian sui generis laws have shown better protection of their GIs resulting in the registration of hundreds of their GIs and economic development. The situation in neighbouring India was the same as is currently found in Pakistan until 2003 when it introduced its sui generis law; it has now registered hundreds of GIs. Besides literature reviews, interviews have been conducted with public and private sector stakeholders to gain an insight into the weaknesses and strengths of the system of protection of GIs in Pakistan, as well as potential reforms. Based on the findings, a sui generis law and institutional reforms for better protection of agricultural GIs and economic development in Pakistan are proposed.

This thesis examines the ways in which outdoor environmental education can be understood in the context of relational-environmental encounters. The study focuses on residential learning programmes with secondary school students in the UK. The research aims to explore the extent to which current educational practices, structures and pedagogies in two case study locations can be said to occur as continuous lived experiences; invoking relational ontologies. Furthermore, this research examines the environmental encounters of students and considers how these encounters shape and challenge environmental narratives consisting social and cultural norms. Making use of developments within behaviour change theory, ecological ethics and environmental pedagogy, this thesis brings together ways of understanding environmental and sustainability education, notions of relational ways of being, and models for transformative societal change. The research methodology makes use of ethnographic encounters in two case locations comprising residential education centers in South Devon, UK, chosen for their representation of instrumental and emancipatory pedagogies. Participating in fifteen outdoor environmental education programmes over ten months, participant observation, focus groups, interviews and photo elicitation were deployed. In-field and subsequent thematic analysis, using structured coding elicited four central themes: structure, choice, relationships and discomfort. These themes formed the core empirical analysis and enabled an exploration of relational practices occurring across the spectrum of contemporary environmental education. The research therefore provides a narrative of residential experiences in a subjective, emergent and reciprocal environment, whereby both lived and learning experiences provide space for instrumental and emancipatory learning. Consequently, contributions are made to geography and education in four key areas; firstly, the articulation of a pedagogy of discomfort deployed explicitly and implicitly within environmental education; secondly, an advancement of relational connotations of place-making within environmental education as being emergent of agency, structure and the setting itself; thirdly, through the ecotheraputic ‘performance’ of other-than-human material and ecological environments in education discourses; and finally, through an advancement of a blended approach to environmental education, understood from an ecological-ethical, as well as a behavioural-practice perspective.

Relatam-se e discutem-se resultados obtidos em tentativa para mostrar que distribuições estatísticas de contagens ou medidas sobre características de variáveis que descrevem defeitos na superfície de pavimentos, quando associadas às distribuições de notas atribuídas às viagens em segmentos de rodovias, podem ser úteis para análise da qualidade de viagens, e fornecer informações que contribuem para facilitar estudos sobre prioridades de manutenção em rodovias, identificar e sugerir ações para melhorar a eficiência e eficácia na conservação de vias. Os dados usados foram coletados em rodovias vicinais próximas a Araraquara, estado de São Paulo, de janeiro a março de 2001. Foram observados 37 segmentos onde se contaram, mediram e classificaram defeitos, e coletaram-se notas atribuídas por observadores sobre o pavimento. O processamento de dados e o uso de métodos da estatística para investigar relações foram usados para verificar a existência de relações entre os resultados de medidas, contagens e notas, e obtenção de função para estimativa de notas atribuídas por observadores, mostrando que notas atribuídas a segmentos de rodovias podem ser estimadas. As conclusões relatadas atêm-se ao caso estudado, mas indicaram que o processo adotado pode ser usado em outros casos similares. Sugere-se o uso do processo desenvolvido para estabelecer prioridades de estudo de soluções técnicas para intervenção e melhoria de pavimentos. / It was reported and discussed the results obtained in a attempt to show that the statistical distributions of measures on characteristics of variables that describe distress in the surface of pavements, when associated to the distributions of scores attributed to the trips in segments of highways should be useful for analysis of the quality of trips, and to supply information that contribute to facilitate studies about maintenance priorities in highways, to identify and to suggest actions to improve the efficiency and effectiveness in the conservation of roads. The used data were collected local highways near the city of Araraquara, state of São Paulo, from January to March of 2001. 37 segments were observed to obtain measures and classify distress or collect scores from observers on the pavement. The data processing and the use of methods of the statistics to investigate relationships were used to verify the existence of relationships among the results of measures and scores, and to obtain a function to estimate of scores from observers, it was shown that attributed scores to segments trips can be estimated. The conclusions told should be useful to the studied case, but they indicated that the adopted process can be used in other similar cases. This suggests the use of the process developed to establish priorities on studies of technical solutions for intervention and improvement of pavement surface.

Travel to outdoor recreational spaces belongs to a general class of research questions for understanding destination and travel mode choices. In travel demand modelling, discrete choice models (DCMs) have been applied to understand and predict a wide range of choices, such as how people choose among alternative destinations for jobs, homes, shopping, personal services etc. Surprisingly, DCMs have rarely been used to understand and model travel to outdoor recreational spaces. In the current literature for modelling travel to outdoor recreational spaces, the established models are Negative Binomial Regression (NBR) models, such as what was used in the UK NEA studies. However, these NBR models were developed to assess the effects of travel to outdoor recreational spaces at a national level, and they are not intended for assessing choices of individual sites. One reason for this is, as identified by previous studies, is that compared with the DCMs, the NBR models have certain limits on estimating people's choice behaviours. There is, therefore, no existing model that can represent and predict how people choose to travel to outdoor recreational spaces. Given the importance of outdoor recreational activities to urban land use planning and public health, this is a clear gap in the field. The aim of this study is to develop a new travel demand model capable of representing and predicting travel to individual outdoor recreational sites. This is achieved by answering four main research questions: First, how to build the new model for outdoor recreational travel? Secondly, is the estimation accurate enough? Thirdly, to what extent can the new model be transferred to destinations outside the case study area? And, finally, how can city planners and designers use this new method? The new model draws upon ideas from random utility theory that underlies the conventional travel demand models to represent trip generation, trip distribution and mode choice. This research follows the standard modelling procedure: data collection and preliminary analysis, model calibration, model validation and model application. The data are collated from a wide range of sources that, importantly for model transferability, cover all areas in England. The new model has been calibrated for a case study area which spanned 14 selected districts in the North-West region. Validation of the new model is based on estimating the numbers of trips to two outdoor recreational sites (Wigg Island and Wigan Flashes) and to nine English National Parks where data on visitor trips exist. In the final stage of the research, the new model is applied to estimate the changes that would arise from planning and design interventions in existing (Wigg Island and Moore Nature Reserve) and proposed (Arpley Country Park) sites. At the end of this process, it is possible to show that the new model can predict the number of trips to individual destinations and that the model can be transferred to other outdoor recreation sites. Furthermore, the new model presented here is capable of predicting the changes in the volume and catchment of visits to an existing green space after land use planning or urban ecological interventions. This is a completely new theoretical model that is focused on understanding and quantifying the travel choices to outdoor recreation sites, which can inform decision makers by forecasting changes in outdoor recreational travel demand, according to different planning scenarios.

The Field Trip Study was conducted in direct response to the emergence of scientific thinking as it relates to children’s cognitive abilities. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of nature-based, experiential activities on children’s acquisition of science knowledge. A multiple treatments and controls with pretest research design was utilized to compare science knowledge acquisition between kindergarten children in four instructional conditions: 1) nature-based field trip plus extension activities from an environmental education curriculum, and corresponding book reading and activities, 2) nature-based field trips plus extension activities from an environmental education curriculum, 3) nature-based field trips plus corresponding book reading and book-related activities, and 4) nature-based field trip with business as usual instruction. Study teachers implemented activities from the Growing Up WILD curriculum and National Science Teacher Association children’s books. An age-appropriate science assessment and accompanying scoring rubric were created in correspondence with Next Generation Science Standards and piloted prior to use as the pretest and posttest for kindergarten children enrolled in the study. Children were interviewed in small groups to elaborate on assessment responses. Kindergarten teachers’ perceptions of using environmental education curricula as a part of field trip extension activities were assessed during a group interview. Gender, treatment condition, and pretest scores were predictors of children’s posttest scores. Children in condition 1 scored significantly higher on posttest mean scores than children in other groups. Teachers enjoyed using the environmental education curriculum and believed it made teaching NGSS accessible.

<p>Problem:</p><p>The problem under consideration is the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) agreement called Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and its impact on equal access to essential drugs in the least developed countries. Especially the countries of sub-Saharan Africa lack such access. Moreover, these countries are the ones where severe diseases like AIDS/HIV, tuberculosis and malaria are widely spread over the population. The authors focus also on patents and their obligatory length imposed through the articles of TRIPS agreement.</p><p>Purpose:</p><p>The purpose of the thesis is to describe and analyse the impact of global trade regulations (TRIPS in particular) on the accessibility of essential drugs in developing countries, and to come up with a possible solution as the way of coping with the problem is concerned. The investigation includes detailed description of solutions accomplished by Brazil and India, and their importance for the least developed countries, in terms of importing generic pharmaceuticals from these.</p><p>Method:</p><p>Qualitative method was used in order to obtain data from interviews with citizens of Botswana, Ghana, Ethiopia and South Africa for better understanding of the situation in these countries. Furthermore, the theories included in the theoretical background of this paper were gathered through deep research in the field of studies regarding Intellectual Property protection and World Trade Organization’s agreements and other legal acts.</p><p>Results:</p><p>The result of the analysis is a model developed from the Game-Theoretic Model, and called Developed Game-Theoretic Model. It is a tool which the least developed countries can use while negotiating prices of medicines with pharmaceutical companies, having the possibility of importing the pharmaceuticals from other countries manufacturing the patented product under compulsory licensing.</p>

Problem: The problem under consideration is the World Trade Organization’s (WTO) agreement called Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and its impact on equal access to essential drugs in the least developed countries. Especially the countries of sub-Saharan Africa lack such access. Moreover, these countries are the ones where severe diseases like AIDS/HIV, tuberculosis and malaria are widely spread over the population. The authors focus also on patents and their obligatory length imposed through the articles of TRIPS agreement. Purpose: The purpose of the thesis is to describe and analyse the impact of global trade regulations (TRIPS in particular) on the accessibility of essential drugs in developing countries, and to come up with a possible solution as the way of coping with the problem is concerned. The investigation includes detailed description of solutions accomplished by Brazil and India, and their importance for the least developed countries, in terms of importing generic pharmaceuticals from these. Method: Qualitative method was used in order to obtain data from interviews with citizens of Botswana, Ghana, Ethiopia and South Africa for better understanding of the situation in these countries. Furthermore, the theories included in the theoretical background of this paper were gathered through deep research in the field of studies regarding Intellectual Property protection and World Trade Organization’s agreements and other legal acts. Results: The result of the analysis is a model developed from the Game-Theoretic Model, and called Developed Game-Theoretic Model. It is a tool which the least developed countries can use while negotiating prices of medicines with pharmaceutical companies, having the possibility of importing the pharmaceuticals from other countries manufacturing the patented product under compulsory licensing.