This project deals with exploring 1) travel-related health risk perception, and 2) actions taken to mitigate that health risk. Ordered logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with the perceived risk of contracting influenza at work, school, daycare, stores, restaurants, libraries, hospitals, doctor’s offices, public transportation, and family or friends’ homes. Based on the models, factors influencing risk perception of contracting influenza in public places for discretionary activities (stores, restaurants, and libraries) are consistent but differ from models of discretionary social visits to someone’s home. Mandatory activities (work, school, daycare) seem to have a few unique factors (e.g., age, gender, work exposure), as do different types of health-related visits (hospitals, doctors’ offices). Across all of the models, recent experience with the virus, of either an individual or a household member, was the most consistent set of factors increasing risk perception. Using such factors in examining transportation implications will require tracking virus outbreaks for use in conjunction with other factors. Subsequently, social-health risk mitigation strategies were studied with the objective of understanding how risk perception influences an individual’s protective behavior. For this objective, this study analyzes travel-actions associated with two scenarios during an outbreak of influenza: 1) A sick person avoiding spreading the disease and 2) A healthy person avoiding getting in contact with the disease. Ordered logistic regression models were used to identify factors associated with mitigation behavior in the first scenario: visiting a doctor’s office, avoiding public places, avoiding public transit, staying at home; and in the second scenario: avoiding public places, avoiding public transit, staying at home. Based on the models for Scenario 1, the factors affecting the decision of avoiding public places, avoiding public transit, and staying at home were fairly consistent but differ for visiting a doctor’s office. However, Scenario 2 models were consistent with their counterpart mitigation models in Scenario 1 except for two factors: gender and household characteristics. Across all the models from Scenario 1, gender was the most significant factor, and for Scenario 2, the most significant factor was the ratio of household income to the household size. / Master of Science

To date, the greatest success in predicting recreational travel patterns has been made by the Systems Theory Model. However, discrepancies still occur primarily due to the lack of accurate and extensive information on the socio-demographic variables that influence recreational travel. The research verified the assumption that socio-demographic variables warrant consideration in a recreational model. The analysis indicates specifically the types of socio-demographic variables that influence the various types of recreational travel. Due to a small sample size the results are not directly applicable to the model, however, they establish the types of socio-demographic variables that warrant consideration in a large sample survey. / Thesis / Bachelor of Arts (BA)

The geology learning environments in college generally fall into three categories: learning based on lectures, field excursions, and laboratory activities. Engaging students in these environments and developing their interest, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving ability have always been challenging in college geology education. This research developed virtual learning methodology and integrated it into traditional geology education to achieve active learning in order to engage students in the learning process. Virtual geology learning tools (VGLTs), high-resolution virtual representation of geologic objects and/or the realistic virtual 3D environment embedded with real-world terrains and animated photorealistic game objects, are the outcome of the effort. VGLTs were integrated into different college geology learning environments and were tested for their effectiveness. The primary finding of this study is that integrating VGLTs into traditional college geology education was affirmed by geology professionals and non-professionals as being helpful in creating effective learning environments that can facilitate the active learning of students in both formal and informal educational settings. VGLTs helped address students’ needs in many aspects of college geology education by utilizing interactive and realistic virtual technologies. VGLTs are important because they can help address different aspects of traditional college geology learning, increasing the versatility and integrity of virtual learning in tandem with traditional learning. However, VGLTs should not replace learning in the physical environment since geology is a discipline that aims to increase our understanding of the physical world.

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Environmental education (EE) programs strive to develop an environmentally literate citizenry capable of addressing the world's environmental problems. However, environmental concerns have become increasingly politically polarizing. As middle school-age youth are developing their own identities, they are likely becoming aware of the dominant political attitudes and environmental messages within their own communities. This thesis investigates the influence of sociopolitical context on student learning outcomes following participation in EE field trips and whether particular approaches produce more positive learning outcomes for students from different contexts. We used a quantitative approach employing pre-existing databases and geographic information systems to create measures of sociopolitical context for each school in our sample based on political partisanship and socioeconomic status. I have organized my research in three chapters: Chapter 1 presents a more comprehensive introduction to the field of EE and extended literature review regarding the question this research intends to address. Chapter 2 presents a quantitative study exploring the influence of sociopolitical context on student outcomes following participation in an EE field trip. Chapter 3 presents a reflection of my graduate learning experience and what I hope to achieve in the future. Results suggest that EE field experiences lead to less positive outcomes for students from wealthier Democratic contexts. While we also found some differences in program characteristics associated with outcomes for each sociopolitical subgroup, effect sizes were small and thus warrant further investigation. We discuss potential explanations for these trends and call for further research on the influence of sociopolitical context and socioeconomic status with relation to EE. / Master of Science / Environmental education (EE) programs strive to develop an environmentally literate future citizenry capable of addressing the world's most pressing environmental problems. However, these environmental concerns have becoming increasingly political polarized in recent decades. As adolescence is a critical period for identity development, middle school-age youth are likely aware of the political attitudes and environmental messages that dominate within their own communities. This thesis investigates the influence of sociopolitical context on student learning outcomes following participation in EE field trips and whether particular approaches to EE produce more positive learning outcomes for students from these different contexts. We used a quantitative approach employing pre-existing databases and geographic information systems to create measures of sociopolitical context for each school in our sample based on the political partisanship of a particular geographic area, as well as its interaction with socioeconomic status. Results suggest that EE field experiences lead to less positive outcomes for students from wealthier Democratic contexts; however, the authors call for further research on which approaches lead to better outcomes for students from different contexts.

Slips, trips, and falls are a serious public health concern, particularly among older adults and within occupational settings, given that falls contribute to a large number of injuries and associate with high medical costs. To reduce the number of falls, there is a need to better understand risk factors contributing to falls, and to develop and evaluate improved balance training interventions to prevent falls. To address these needs, this work has two primary goals: first, to better understand risk factors contributing to falls, including fatigue and balance reactions after a large postural perturbation, and, second, to develop and evaluate improved reactive balance training (RBT) interventions to reduce risk of falls due to slipping and tripping. The first study investigated the effects of performing occupationally-relevant fatigue-inducing physical work on trip and fall risk. Healthy young adults performed a simulated manual material handling (MMH) task, using either heavy or light boxes, for two hours. Gait measures related to risk of tripping and slipping were assessed before and after the task. Reactive balance during one laboratory-induced trip was also assessed after the task. Results showed that performing the heavy MMH task did not affect risk of tripping or slipping, or reactive balance after tripping. These results may have resulted from insufficient fatigue due to the MMH task. The second study investigated the relationship between feet kinematics upon slipping while walking, and the outcome of the slip. Seventy-one laboratory-induced slips were analyzed, which included recoveries, feet-split falls, feet-forward falls, and lateral falls. Feet kinematics differed between these four slip outcomes, and a discriminant model including six measures of feet kinematics correctly predicted 87% of slip outcomes. Two potentially modifiable characteristics of feet kinematics upon slipping that can improve the likelihood of successfully averting a fall were identified: (1) quickly arresting the motion of the slipping foot; and (2) a recovery step that places the trailing toe approximately 0-10% body height anterior to the sacrum. This information may be used to guide the development of improved RBT interventions to reduce risk of slip-induced falls. The third study evaluated the efficacy of two low-cost, low-tech RBT methods for improving reactive balance after slipping. The two methods were: unexpected slip training (UST), which involved repeated unexpected slips while walking and volitional slip-recovery training (VST), which involved practicing balance reactions after volitionally inducing a slip-like perturbation. Young adults completed one session of an assigned intervention (UST, VST, or control), followed by one unexpected, laboratory-induced slip while walking. Compared to controls, UST and VST resulted in a higher proportion of successful balance recoveries from the laboratory-induced slips. UST improved both proactive control and reactive stepping after slipping, while VST primarily improved the ability to arrest slipping foot motion. These results support the use of UST and VST as practical, low-tech methods of slip training. The fourth study evaluated the efficacy of RBT that targets both slipping and tripping. Community-dwelling, healthy older adults (61-75 years) completed four sessions of either RBT (treadmill-based trip-recovery training and VST) or control training (general strength and balance exercises). Reactive balance during unexpected laboratory-induced slips and trips was assessed before and after RBT, and compared between subjects at baseline (before the intervention), after control training, and after RBT. The incidence of slip-induced falls differed between groups in that 80% fell at baseline, 60% fell after control training, and 18% fell after RBT. Post-RBT subjects also exhibited less severe slips, compared to baseline and post-control subjects. The incidence of trip-induced falls did not differ between groups, but margin of stability after tripping was greater for post-RBT subjects, compared to post-control subjects. These results show promise for the use of RBT applied to both slipping and tripping to reduce fall risk among older adults. / Doctor of Philosophy / Slips, trips, and falls are a serious public health concern, given that falls contribute to a large number of injuries and deaths. Falls are particularly concerning among older adults, who are reported to fall more frequently, and within occupational settings, where falls cause a larger number of injuries and a significant economic burden. To reduce the number of falls, there is a need to better understand risk factors contributing to falls, and to develop and evaluate improved balance training interventions to prevent falls. Four studies were conducted to address these needs: two studies aimed to better understand risk factors contributing to falls, including fatigue and balance reactions after slipping, and two studies aimed to develop and evaluate improved balance training interventions to reduce risk of falls due to slipping and tripping. This work focused on slipping and tripping, because slips and trips are reported to cause a large number of injuries and falls among both workers and older adults. The first study investigated the effect of performing occupationally-relevant fatigue-inducing physical work on trip and fall risk among healthy young adults, and results showed that performing a simulated manual material handling task (i.e. moving and stacking boxes using a two-wheeled dolly) did not affect risk of tripping and falling. The second study investigated the relationship between balance reactions after slipping and the outcome of the slip. Results showed that balance reactions of the feet predicted the outcome of the slip (i.e. recovering balance or one of three types of slip-induced falls) with 87% accuracy. We also identified characteristics of balance reactions that can improve the likelihood of successfully averting a fall. The third study evaluated the efficacy of two low-tech reactive balance training (RBT) methods for reducing slip-induced fall risk among young adults. These methods involved practicing balance reactions after slip-like perturbations, induced either unexpectedly or volitionally. Results showed that both RBT methods improved reactive balance after slipping, but through different mechanisms. The fourth study evaluated the efficacy of a RBT intervention targeting both slipping and tripping among older adults. Results showed that RBT improved reactive balance during both slipping and tripping, and reduced the incidence of slip-induced falls. In conclusion, these results help to better understand risk factors contributing to falls, and support the use of practical reactive balance training interventions targeting both slipping and tripping to reduce fall risk.

Forestry education in high schools can be an effective method for introducing students to forest management. To study its use and purpose, we conducted a web-based survey of high school science teachers in the Southern Piedmont region of the United States investigating their forestry education attitudes and teaching practices. A total of 1024 surveys were delivered and 324 returned for an adjusted response rate of 32%. Results indicate that most teachers (82%) agree forestry should be taught in high schools and do so most frequently by presenting forestry concepts in the context of ecosystem services, followed by physical and physiological characteristics of trees. Concepts related to products, uses, and management are taught least frequently. Variables that predict teaching frequencies for each of these three concept groups include classes taught in the last 5 years, environmental education program training, and childhood location in addition to attitudes toward and knowledge of forest management. Also, it was found that over half (57%) of the teachers surveyed do not take field trips to forests and less than 25% do so multiple times per year. Variables that predict whether or not teachers take field trips to forests include confidence in teaching forestry concepts, involvement in school natural resources related extra-curricular activities such as 4-H and Envirothon, and the presence of a forest within walking distance of the school. The most widely reported constraints to teaching forestry concepts and taking field trips to forests are mandated standards or curriculum (60%), money (40%), time (32%), mandated testing (19%), and training, interest, and infrastructure (19%). / Master of Science

Experiential learning theory stresses the importance of adequate preparation and reflection surrounding concrete experiences. This study explores the relationship between preparation and follow-up classroom experiences and the outcomes of environmental education (EE) field trips, including environmental literacy, 21st century skills, positive youth development, satisfaction, and self-reported behavior change. Surveys with both students and their school teachers who attended over 300 EE programs reveal that both pre-trip preparation, especially concerning logistics, and post-trip follow up, related to the subject matter of the field trip, were significantly related to more positive student outcomes. The authors recommend both schools and organizations take into consideration how they can work together to create more holistic learning experiences. / Master of Science / Environmental and science education in the form of school field trips have the capability of to enhance student learning, increase motivation to do well in school, and develop skills such as thinking critically and collaborating with peers. Learning theory illuminates the importance of in-school preparation and reflection surrounding field trips. We wanted to discover what happens in the classroom before and after these field trips that contribute to creating truly valuable educational experiences. Student and teacher surveys from over 300 field trip programs highlight the importance of preparing students both logistically and with the educational content, as well as following-up after the field trip by reviewing and utilizing newly gained knowledge and skills. We recommend schools and field trip providers, such as parks, zoos and nature centers, collaborate to create more holistic science learning experiences.

Yes / In this paper we study the determinants of the strength of patent enforcement in 43 member countries of the World Trade Organization (WTO) between 1998 and 2011, a period after the signing of the Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement. We do so by building on and expanding the seminal work of Ginarte and Park (1997) on the pre-TRIPS determinants of patent rights in the years 1960-1990. We find that in the years after TRIPS was signed, the strength of patent enforcement of a country is positively determined by two variables that signify the usage of the patent and intellectual property system, and the number of patent and trademark applications. We also find that the level of research and development expenditure, the quality of human capital, and the level of development of a country have positive effects on the strength of the enforcement of patent law in practice. Intellectual property rights enforcement is one of the key investment-related policies included in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Investment Policy Framework for Sustainable Development. Identifying the determinants of strong patent systems will help policymakers at the national and supranational levels to design and implement effective policies that strengthen national patent systems, thereby enhancing economic benefits such as greater levels of commercialization of intangible assets and greater levels of international trade and investment.

This study endeavors to delve into the utilization of field trips by secondary school teachers as an educational tool within religious education. Our aim is to explore teachers' approaches and attitudes towards both virtual and physical field trips in this context, filling a gap identified in existing research. Through a comprehensive review of national and international literature, it became evident that the teacher's perspective on this matter has been relatively understudied. To address this gap, qualitative interviews were conducted with teachers, either in-person at their school or via remote platforms like Zoom. The interviewed teachers were based in the southern region of Sweden, spanning both urban centers and rural areas. Our approach during interviews involved posing open-ended questions, providing teachers with the opportunity to freely articulate their perspectives, ensuring an authentic expression of their opinions. The interview results highlighted a wide array of factors influencing the utilization of field trips by teachers in their educational practices. It became apparent that both physical and virtual field trips present distinct advantages and challenges, with common as well as unique considerations identified by the teachers. While approaches to incorporating field trips varied among the educators, there was unanimous agreement on their value as a resource in religious education.