The accuracy and similarity of team members' perceptions regarding the interdependencies of their task as well as the criticality of teamwork behaviors is essential to team performance. Unfortunately, these perceptions are not always accurate or similar, which has led to calls for research evaluating the effectiveness of interventions aimed at improving these perceptions. The present study evaluated the accuracy and similarity of crew members' perceptions of task interdependence and teamwork in the U.S. railroad industry. Specifically, this study assessed (1) the effect of Crew Resource Management (CRM) training on the accuracy and similarity of locomotive and maintenance of way (MOW) crew members' perceptions and (2), the extent to which the accuracy and similarity of those perceptions are retained 2-years after training. The overall results of the present study suggests that CRM training is effective in increasing the accuracy and similarity of crew members' perceptions of team-relatedness (amount of task interdependence) and perceptions regarding the importance of teamwork. However, the effectiveness is often dependent on the metric used (i.e., accuracy vs. similarity), and the specific characteristics of the crew members (i.e., locomotive vs. MOW, higher vs. lower interpositional experience). Furthermore, the results suggest that training did not increase the accuracy or similarity of crew members' perceptions of team workflow pattern (form of task interdependence). Lastly, a small sample size and low power precluded the running of quantitative statistical analysis assessing the long-term retention of the accuracy and similarity of participants' perceptions of task interdependence or teamwork. However, for the sake of completeness, the means, standard deviations, and effect sizes are presented in the Appendix.

The purpose of this study was to review the existing teams research which suggests that teams vary along 4 dimensions of interdependence. Task interdependence is the extent to which the task drives interactions among individuals. Resource interdependence is the extent to which individuals rely on others to provide inputs necessary to complete their portion of work. Reward interdependence is the extent to which individuals' rewards are tied into the performance of others. Finally, goal interdependence is the extent to which individuals set goals and receive feedback at the group versus individual level. A comprehensive team interdependence scale tapping into these 4 distinct dimensions was developed and tested in a cross organizational sample. Factor analytic results suggested that a 4-factor model did indeed provide the best fit for the data. A discussion of the findings, implications, limitations, and future directions is presented.

Team leadership research has largely relied on traditional dyadic models (i.e., those capturing one-on-one relationships between a leader and follower) to explain team-level phenomena. Despite recent advancements, much of this research falls short of addressing the complexity inherent to teams. One promising alternative to the traditional perspectives, functional leadership theory, moves beyond the constraints of dyadic models and instead advances a needs-based approach for understanding team leadership (i.e., effective leaders are those that meet any and all team needs). Although intuitive, the ambiguous nature of simply meeting team needs does not provide sufficient specificity as to how exactly leaders meet team needs. In an effort to address this issue, I introduce a multi-dimensional construct, called leader focus, to explain how leaders meet team needs by focusing their efforts on teamwork or taskwork (i.e., person-task focus) as well as different relational entities in the team (i.e., entity focus). In total, I propose six unique foci of team leadership: individual task-focus, team task-focus, subgroup task-focus, individual person-focus, team person-focus, and subgroup person-focus. Next, using social interdependence theory, I hypothesize that individual-focused leadership is most effective when task interdependence is low, whereas team- and subgroup-focused leadership are most effective when task interdependence is high. Further, person-focused leadership is hypothesized to influence team effectiveness by way of interpersonal processes; task-focused leadership is argued to influence team effectiveness via task-related processes. In a sample of 89 firefighting crews, partial support is found for the multi-foci model of team leadership. Team task-focused leadership influences team task performance indirectly through task processes; team person-focused and subgroup person-focused leadership influence team helping behaviors through interpersonal processes. Moreover, the relationship between individual task-focused and subgroup task-focused leadership on team processes is contingent on task interdependence. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

In workplace, any kinds of teamwork and management in an organization, like cooperation, communication, and leadership, all of the activities need personal interaction, and the interaction is related to the work results. So, the purpose of this study is to find out the relationships between social skill and job performance, and explores how social skill affecting job performance, in addition, whether different degree of task interdependence could influence study results. This study is conducted through opinion survey by random sampling in manufacturing and service industry. With the valid 119 questionnaires replied by the staffs and the direct supervisors, the finding of this study can be summarized as follows: 1. Social skill impacts the in-role performance positively. 2. Social skill impacts each of the co-worker support and the supervisor support positively. 3. supervisor support has mediating effect between social skill and in-role performance positively. Keywords: Social Skill¡BIn-role Performance¡BSupervisor Support¡BCo-worker Support¡BTask Interdependence.

傳統代理理論主張，企業可利用績效酬勞激勵員工努力工作，提昇組織績效；而競賽理論則強調，利用同儕競賽，並擴大勝負間的酬勞差距，以達企業利潤極大化目標。績效酬勞與競賽誘因對員工投入的努力皆具正面激勵效果，然而，在不同工作特性下，酬勞誘因隨著員工工作所需的合作程度不同，對組織績效的影響卻有所差異。 本文首先依據代理理論與競賽理論模型，將績效酬勞與競賽誘因同時納入酬勞誘因制度中，以利分析在不同工作特性的情況下，酬勞誘因對於營業單位經營績效之影響。在績效酬勞對經營績效之影響上，理論分析結果發現：不論對員工工作彼此獨立或對工作需合作的營業單位而言，績效酬勞的增加，都可提高經營績效；當隨機干擾因素增加，因員工獲得酬勞的不確定性增加，進而削弱員工努力的意願，降低營業單位之經營績效。在競賽誘因對組織績效的影響方面，靜態分析結果指出：在不同工作特性的情況下，競賽誘因會出現不同的效果。當員工工作彼此獨立時，擴大競賽後贏家與輸家間的酬勞差距，有利於組織績效之提高。相對的，在員工工作彼此合作的情況下，酬勞差距擴大後，一方面使員工最適個人努力提高，有益於組織經營績效；另一方面卻削弱員工彼此合作的意願，降低協助同儕的努力，兩種效果抵銷之後，使得酬勞誘因對組織經營績效之提昇受到限制。 本文以一家大型連鎖汽車公司為個案公司，研究期間為2001年至2004年，包括86個營業所及90家汽車修護廠的營業績效資料及中低階層員工之酬勞資料，以實地實證研究法進行實證研究。研究結果發現，當員工工作彼此獨立時，營業單位之個人績效酬勞愈大或收入變異程度愈小者，績效愈好；當員工工作彼此需要合作時，營業單位之團體績效酬勞愈大或收入變異程度愈小者，績效愈好。在競賽誘因方面，當員工工作彼此獨立時，不論是職務間或職務內的酬勞差距的擴大，皆對營業單位之經營績效具有正面提昇效果；相較於工作彼此獨立，當員工工作彼此需要合作時，職務間或職務內酬勞差距的擴大對營業單位績效提昇幅度顯著較小。由此可知，企業在進行酬勞誘因設計時，應同步考量工作特性與酬勞誘因機制間的配適性，俾利於組織績效的提昇。 / Agency theory suggests that organizations can motivate employees to exert their efforts by providing individual-based compensation. Tournament theory argues that, by encouraging competition among employees and increasing the compensation gaps between winners and losers, firms can direct employees’ actions in alignment with the firm’s interests. Both compensation schemes can induce employees’ efforts and increase corporate performance. However, the positive effects on corporate performance vary in the need of cooperation among employees, ranging from independent to interdependent tasks. This paper uses a theoretical and empirical analysis of performance-based and tournament-based incentives to examine the impacts of compensation incentives on branch performance. For the impacts of performance-based incentives on branch performance, the performance will increase in the individual performance-based incentives. When employees work independently, the greater the compensation gaps lead to more efforts and higher performance. When employees work interdependently, two contradictory effects of greater the compensation gaps make the performance change unclear. On the one hand, greater compensation gaps will increase employees’ efforts for being winner in the tournament. On the other hand, greater compensation gaps will induce employees not to help their competitors and hurt the performance, although help efforts can contribute firms profits. Using four years of data from a large car company with 86 car dealer branches and 90 car repair service branches, we find that for the independent tasks, the branch performance increase as individual performance-based compensation increases or revenue variance decreases. For the tasks needed cooperation among employees, the branch performance is increasing in group-based compensation or decreasing in revenue variance. Besides, we find that the larger the compensation gaps between inter- or intra-jobs, the branch performance for the independent tasks are better. The impacts of the compensation gaps on the interdependent tasks are smaller than on the independent tasks. Therefore, incentive policy rewards the best performances with the complementary fit between tasks design and compensation schemes

Although organizational citizenship behaviors toward individuals (OCB-I) have been studied over decades, the beneficiary side of OCB-I has been understudied. The co-existing and interactive possibility of benefactor OCB-I and beneficiary OCB-I within individuals has been ignored. Therefore, this research adopted a person-centered approach and examined different profiles of benefactor OCB-I and beneficiary OCB-I on the basis of Grant’s (2013) theory. Results from Study 1 data (cross-sectional data) and Study 2 data (multiple waves of data) revealed the three profile groups: vigorous (high benefactor OCB-I and high beneficiary OCB-I), moderate (moderate benefactor OCB-I and moderate beneficiary OCB-I), and passive OCB-I groups (low benefactor OCB-I and low beneficiary OCB-I). Also, the three profiles were significantly differentiated by positive affect, other-oriented empathy, task interdependence, and job satisfaction. Furthermore, the vigorous OCB-I group showed the lowest psychological strain while the passive OCB-I group showed the lowest physical strain. The results offer theoretical implications for Grant’s (2013) theory, OCB-I and employee health research, and equity theory in comparison to conservation of resources theory. In addition, practical implications for enhancing employee health are discussed.

本論文的研究目的在探討工作績效理論中任務性、脈絡性及適應性績效表現對主管獎酬決策的影響。研究一以「特定職位或職系適用」的角度，以業務經理為標的，運用實驗法以影片模擬實驗法的三因子實驗設計來進行，以233位企業主管為受試對象。研究二以「跨職位適用」的角度，運用調查法以150位主管選取一位部屬來評量三種工作績效表現。兩個研究結果顯示，任務性及脈絡性績效表現如過去研究結論一致，對主管獎酬決策有影響；適應性績效表現亦對主管獎酬決策有影響。透過實驗法驗證，適應性績效表現與脈絡性績效表現的交互效果對主管獎酬決策有影響；但與任務性績效表現的交互效果則是不存在的。透過調查法驗證，在任務越複雜的工作，脈絡性績效表現及適應性績效表現對主管獎酬決策的正向關係則越強。在研究三中，針對上述研究結論及實務應用，以兩個職務屬性為干擾效果，發現顧客接觸需求程度及任務相互依賴性越高的職位，適應性績效表現與主管獎酬決策的關係就越強。 本論文之研究延伸工作績效內涵，驗證適應性績效表現對主管獎酬決策有其影響。並以三個不同的研究來驗證假說，從不同的職務適用觀點及研究方法的角度，更具理論及實務的價值。 / The current research aims to examine how adaptive performance, contextual performance and task performance correlate supervisory reward decision. The study employed the methods of survey and laboratory experiments and virtually comprises three parts. In Part One, from the perspective of specific occupations or job families, 233 manager subjects were recruited to view a previously-videotaped simulated sales executive’s job performance and give rating afterwards in terms of his task performance, contextual performance, and adaptive performance. In Part Two, from the perspective of applicable across jobs, 150 manager subjects randomly chose one of their subordinates and rated his/her task, contextual and adaptive performance. The findings in either Study 1 or Study 2 were congruent with results of previous research, which indicated not only the main effects of task and contextual performance but also (that of) adaptive performance affected supervisory reward decision. In addition, the experiment study justified that the interactional effects of adaptive and contextual performance were crucial factors to modify the supervisory reward decision, while the field study illustrated how employees’ contextual and adaptive performances reinforced supervisory reward decision especially when task complexity were taken into consideration. In Study 3, based on the former findings and practical application, we found that a job position of high customer-contact requirements and high task interdependence significantly strengthened the correlation between adaptive performance and supervisory reward decision. This study not only endorses the essentiality of job performance but also testifies effect of adaptive performance on supervisory reward decision. Moreover, this study, using different methodologies, has extended theory and provided practical implications.

La présente recherche a pour objectif principal d’étudier l’effet que peuvent exercer les normes d’équipe sur le leadership partagé au sein des équipes de travail. Nous voulions vérifier les relations entre trois normes proposées par Day (2007) comme influençant de façon significative le partage du leadership dans les équipes. Il s’agit de la distance hiérarchique, de la sécurité psychologique et de l’orientation vers l’apprentissage. Cette recherche vise également à vérifier l’effet modérateur, d’une part, de l’interdépendance au travail et, d’autre part, celui de la complexité de la tâche sur les relations entre les normes d’équipe et le leadership partagé. Cette recherche se base sur des données secondaires qui ont été recueillies par Vincent Rousseau (professeur à l’Université de Montréal) et Caroline Aubé (professeure à HEC Montréal) auprès de 394 membres appartenant à 77 équipes et auprès de 77 supérieurs immédiats de ces mêmes équipes. L’ensemble de ces participants travaille dans une organisation de sécurité publique canadienne. Les données ont été collectées en utilisant la méthode du questionnaire. Des analyses de régressions ont été utilisées pour vérifier les hypothèses de cette étude. Les résultats montrent que la distance hiérarchique, la sécurité psychologique et l’orientation vers l’apprentissage sont significativement liées au leadership partagé. Ces normes d’équipe sont également fortement reliées entre elles. Les résultats n’ont, cependant, pas permis de confirmer l’effet modérateur de l’interdépendance au travail et de la complexité de la tâche sur les relations entre les normes d’équipe et le leadership partagé. Globalement, les résultats montrent que les gestionnaires tireront avantage à encourager les normes d’équipe associées à une faible distance hiérarchique, à une forte sécurité psychologique et à une orientation davantage axée sur l’apprentissage afin de faciliter l’exercice du leadership partagé et ce, en vue d’améliorer la performance des équipes et de l’organisation. / This research mainly aims to study the effect of team norms on shared leadership within work teams. We wanted to check the relationship between three norms proposed by Day (2007) as significantly influencing the sharing of leadership within teams. This refers to hierarchical distance, psychological safety and learning orientation. This research also aims to test the moderating effect of the interdependence to the task and of the task complexity on the relationship between team norms and shared leadership. This research is based on secondary data that was collected by Vincent Rousseau (Professor at University of Montreal) and Caroline Aubé (Professor at HEC Montreal) among 394 members from 77 teams and among 77 immediate supervisors of these teams. All these participants work in a Canadian public safety organization. Data was collected using the questionnaire method. Regression analyses were conducted to test the hypotheses of this study. The results show that hierarchical distance, psychological safety and learning orientation were significantly related to shared leadership. These team norms are also strongly interconnected. The results did, however, fail to confirm the moderating effect of task interdependence and task complexity on the relationship between team norms and shared leadership. Overall, the results show that managers will benefit from promoting team norms related to a low power distance, a strong psychological safety, and a strong learning orientation to facilitate the exercise of shared leadership and in order to improve team and organization performance.

Le contrat psychologique s’impose comme le cadre d’analyse le plus approprié à l’étude des relations d’emploi et à la compréhension des comportements et attitudes des employés (Guerrero, 2005; D. Rousseau, 1990). L’examen du contrat psychologique s’est principalement concentré sur les perceptions individuelles des employés aux obligations mutuelles qui les lient avec l’organisation. Avec le recours grandissant aux équipes de travail, la conception traditionnelle du contrat psychologique s’avère limitée à l’examen des nouvelles relations qui lient les équipes de travail, en tant qu’entités, à l’organisation (Gibbard et al., 2017; Laulié & Tekleab, 2016; Marks, 2001). L’étude du contrat psychologique d’équipes, davantage soulignée dans la littérature, n’a pourtant reçu qu’une faible attention (Gibbard et al., 2017). Axée sur les équipes de travail et le rôle critique que le contrat psychologique d’équipes peut jouer dans l’efficacité des équipes, cette thèse a pour principal objectif d’étendre la portée d’étude du contrat psychologique et ce, en proposant une reconceptualisation du contrat psychologique au niveau groupal. Plus spécifiquement, nous proposons que les membres d’équipes, sur la base de leur interaction et interdépendance continue et de leurs expériences collectives à l’environnement du travail, peuvent développer des perceptions communes aux termes et obligations d’échange impliquant leurs équipes, en tant qu’entités, et leur organisation. Afin de participer à l’avancement des connaissances dans ce domaine, nous avons adopté une recherche articulée en trois articles qui se sont basés sur des données transversales recueillies en milieu organisationnel dans le cadre d’une recherche dirigée par les professeurs Vincent Rousseau (professeur à l’Université de Montréal) et Caroline Aubé (professeure à HEC Montréal). Le premier article propose une reconceptualisation du contrat psychologique au niveau de l’équipe et donne lieu à l’élaboration d’une échelle de mesure du contrat psychologique d’équipes dotée de propriétés psychométriques fort acceptables. Les résultats de cette recherche, basée sur deux échantillons (comptant 526 participants et 506 participants), montrent que les membres d’équipes peuvent avoir des perceptions collectives et communes des obligations réciproques de leurs équipes et organisation. Par ailleurs, les résultats révèlent que le contrat psychologique d’équipes consiste en deux dimensions, à savoir le contrat relationnel d’équipes et le contrat transactionnel d’équipes. Les deux autres articles (articles 2 et 3) se penchent, quant à eux, sur la composante relationnelle du contrat psychologique d’équipes. Plus précisément, le deuxième article consiste à explorer les antécédents du contrat psychologique d’équipes. Nous nous intéressons, particulièrement, à l’effet que la supervision abusive, comme forme de leadership destructif, pourrait avoir sur le contrat psychologique relationnel d’équipes en considérant le rôle médiateur de l’habilitation d’équipes et l’effet modérateur du style d’attachement de l’équipe (anxiété/évitement). Les résultats de cette recherche, réalisée auprès de 135 équipes (représentant 514 participants), indiquent que la supervision abusive peut affecter négativement le contrat psychologique relationnel d’équipes en réduisant l’habilitation d’équipes. La force de la relation entre la supervision abusive et l’habilitation d’équipes diminue lorsque l’équipe est davantage orientée vers un attachement d’anxiété et augmente lorsque l’équipe affiche un niveau élevé d’attachement d’évitement. Le troisième article porte sur les conséquences du contrat psychologique relationnel d’équipes. Cette recherche propose un modèle théorique qui cherche à vérifier le rôle que le contrat psychologique relationnel d’équipes peut avoir sur l’adoption de comportements d’autogestion par les membres de l’équipe. Ce modèle tient en compte le rôle médiateur des affects d’équipes positifs ainsi que le rôle modérateur de l’interdépendance au travail au regard de la relation entre les affects d’équipes positifs et les comportements d’autogestion d’équipes. En recourant aux mêmes données du deuxième article, les résultats de cette étude ont permis d’appuyer le rôle médiateur des affects d’équipes positifs et montrent, également, que la force de la relation entre les affects d’équipes positifs et les comportements d’autogestion d’équipes augmente lorsque les tâches d’équipes requièrent un niveau élevé d’interdépendance entre les membres d’équipes. De façon générale, les résultats des trois recherches offrent un soutien empirique aux hypothèses proposées. Les résultats soulignent, par ailleurs, l’importance de considérer les contrats psychologiques d’équipes dans la gestion des équipes de travail. En outre, les résultats de cette thèse corroborent l’importance de prêter attention aux facteurs organisationnels et individuels susceptibles d’influencer les types de contrats psychologiques d’équipes et ainsi les affects et comportements qui en découlent. / Psychological contract stands out as the most appropriate analytical framework for the study of employment relationships and for the comprehension of employees’ attitudes and behaviors (Guerrero, 2005; D. Rousseau, 1990). The study of psychological contract has basically focused on employees’ individual perceptions regarding employees-organization mutual obligations. With the growing use of teams, the traditional conception of psychological contract seems to be inadequate to examining contemporary relationships that bind teams, as entities, to their organization (Gibbard et al., 2017; Laulié & Tekleab, 2016; Marks, 2001). Although the study of team psychological contract is increasingly highlighted in the literature, this concept has received little attention in the literature on the psychological contract (Gibbard et al., 2017). Considering the significant role that the team psychological contract can play in the effectiveness of teams, the main object of this thesis consists in extending the study of the psychological contract to the team level. Essentially, we suggest that team members, based on their regular interaction and interdependence and on their common experience to the work environment, may develop similar perceptions regarding terms and obligations between their team, as an entity, and their organization. In order to participate to the advancement of knowledge in this field, we adopted research articulated in three articles based on cross-sectional data collected in an organizational setting as part of research directed by professors Vincent Rousseau (professor at University of Montreal) and Caroline Aubé (professor at HEC Montreal). The first article proposes a reconceptualization of psychological contract at the team level and leads to the development of a scale for measuring team psychological contract with very acceptable psychometric properties. The finding of this study, based on two samples (counting 526 and 506 participants), show that teams may develop collective perceptions about their team-organization reciprocal obligations. Moreover, the results reveal that team psychological contract consists of two dimensions, namely relational team contract and transactional team contract. The other two articles (articles 2 and 3) focus on the relational component of team psychological contract. Specifically, the second article consists of exploring the antecedents of relational team psychological contract. We are, particularly, interested in the effect of abusive supervision, as a destructive form of leadership, might have on members’ relational team contract by considering the mediating role of team empowerment and the moderating effect of team attachment style (anxiety / avoidance). Based on a sample of 134 teams (representing 514 participants), the results of this study indicate that abusive supervision can negatively affect relational team psychological contract by lessening team empowerment. Abusive supervision effect on team empowerment decreases when team members have more attachment anxiety and increases when team members display more attachment avoidance. The third article addresses relational team psychological contract consequences. This study proposes a theoretical model that aims to examine the role that relational team psychological contract may play on the adoption of team members to self-managing behaviors. This model takes into consideration the mediating role of team positive affective tone and the moderating effect of task interdependence on the relationship between positive team affective tone and team self-managing behaviors. Using the same sample adopted in the second article, this study findings support the mediating effect of team positive affective tone and indicate that the effect of team positive affective tone increases when team task requires a high level of interdependence between team members. Overall, the results provide an empirical support to the three studies hypotheses. Moreover, the results highlight the need of considering team psychological contract in managing teams. The results, finally, stress the importance of exploring the factors that may influence team psychological contract types and thus the resulting behaviors.