University of Macau / Faculty of Business Administration / Department of Finance and Business Economics

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In a world of economic uncertainty and manifold social problems, South Africa has its own unique challenges of low economic growth, persistent budget deficits that produce increasing government debt and the highest level of economic inequality in the world. The history of injustice and economic marginalisation and the failure of the economy to provide inclusive growth drives an urgent need to address economic inequality through tax policy, placing ever more focus on wealth taxes as a possible solution. There is a hope is that taxing the wealthy may provide the opportunity to redistribute desperately-needed resources to those denied the opportunity to build wealth and who are trapped in the cycle of poverty. Yet, as appealing as a new wealth tax may seem, the introduction of such a tax carries with it a range of risks, not all of which are known. Of great concern is the possible effect on the economy, which, in its vulnerable state, cannot afford any loss of capital and investment. Very little research has been done on wealth tax in the South African context and there is a dearth of literature focusing on the views and perceptions of the wealthy individuals themselves. This qualitative study investigates the merits and disadvantages of a new wealth tax and seeks to identify any unintended consequences that could result from the implementation of a new wealth tax in South Africa, drawing from historical and international experience and primary data obtained from interviews with individuals likely to be affected by such a tax. Having explored the literature and international experiences with wealth tax and having probed the thinking of wealthy individuals who would be the payers of a wealth tax, the study finds that a new wealth tax may contribute towards the progressivity of the tax system, but it is doubtful whether such a tax would provide a sustainable revenue stream that would be sufficient to address economic inequality and there is a risk of causing harm to the economy. Recognising that the motivation for wealth taxes is often driven more by political argument and public perception than by rational quantitative analysis, the study also anticipates the introduction of a new wealth tax and suggests guidelines for the design of such a tax within the framework for evaluating a good tax system. This study informs the debate on wealth taxes in South Africa and contributes to the design of such a tax, should it be implemented.

The objective of this thesis was to analyse the effect of the increasing popularity of global e-commerce on the South African legislative framework in respect of the taxation of non-resident enterprises, and to propose a possible solution for the taxation of e-commerce, taking into account previous theories. The methodology utilised comprised of a critical analysis of the legal rules relating to the taxation of a foreign entity's business profits by virtue of the application of the permanent establishment principle, its definition and evolution as a conceptual basis for taxation. Furthermore, an in depth evaluation of the various solutions that have already been proposed and, in some cases, implemented was undertaken. It was concluded that the application of the permanent establishment principle is wholly ineffective as a means to levy tax on the e-commerce business profits of a foreign entity as the principle relies too heavily upon a physical intermediary in the source state, whereas e-commerce transactions are conducted on the intangible trading platform of the Internet. In light of the numerous policy proposals advanced over the years, it was concluded that the most feasible and practical solution for the taxation of foreign e-commerce would be the imposition on a foreign entity in South Africa of a low withholding tax on the active business profits in excess of a pre-determined threshold. Key words: South African taxation; e-commerce; foreign business entity; permanent establishment; withholding tax

The purpose of this study is to determine whether a discretionary inter vivos trust is still an effective instrument for estate planning. The process of estate planning, the role the trust plays in it and the background to the trust are described. The taxability and tax saving opportunities when the trust are utilised are discussed in the light of the Estate Duty Act, 45 of 1955, the Income Tax Act, 58 of 1962 (including the Eighth Schedule thereof) and the Transfer Duty Act, 40 of 1949. The opinions of tax and legal authorities in articles and relevant case law are also discussed. The impact of the "letter of wishes" on the stipulations of the trust deed is examined. Amendments to the Income Tax Act have placed a limit on the use of a trust for estate planning through a number of anti-avoidance measures, the introduction of a capital gains tax (in the Eighth Schedule) and the imposition of a high tax rate. The increase in the deduction granted in arriving at the dutiable amount of an estate, in terms of section 4A of the Estate Duty Act, from R1 500 000 to R2 500 000 has imposed a further limit on the use of the trust as an instrument in estate planning. The research demonstrates that, notwithstanding the amendments to the Income Tax Act, the trust still is a viable instrument, mainly because the trust operates as a conduit and because of its potential use in dividing taxable income amongst a number of beneficiaries. The stipulations included in the trust deed and the "letter of wishes" (if one exists), must be thought through carefully when estate planning is done, as it can give rise to the application of the general and specific anti-avoidance provisions as included in sections 7 and 103 of this Act. The research also concludes that, in assessing the effectiveness of the trust as an instrument in tax planning, the disadvantage of paying the higher transfer duty when the immovable asset is transferred to the trust should be weighed up against the possible saving in income tax and estate duty at a later stage. It is also clear that most assets owned by the trust are tax neutral, whilst many of the amendments under discussion deal with the taxability of trust income. The quantitative considerations underlying the use of the trust as part of the estate plan, remain unchanged. The research concludes by providing a framework of quantitative and qualitative criteria that can be used by an estate planner to determine whether it will be advantageous to transfer an asset to the trust to achieve the objectives of the estate plan.

The object of study of this dissertation is the institution of modulation effects, provided by the Article 27 of Brazilian Federal Law n. 9.868/99, when applied in tax matters. The problem arises from the fact that taxpayers' rights are recognized as a fundamental right, which is why a considerable part of the national legal doctrine believes that modulation effects, in tax matters, can only be given in favour of the taxpayers; because the reasons of state could never supplant the exercise of fundamental rights. This work focuses on the theory of contemporaneous constitutionalism, lays the understanding that the current Democratic State of Law presupposes the rescue of the moral subject, which was achieved by assigning full normativity of fundamental human rights conveyed by indeterminate concepts which provide ample space for action by the judiciary. Given this framework, this work studies the role of the legal argument in the legitimation of judicial acts. A study shall be conducted to identify the boundary between interpretation and judicial discretion. It concludes that it is possible for courts to decide to use practical and consequentialist arguments, whether economical or not, once provided their reappointment due to the legal system, through rational discourse. It undertakes logical-syntactic analysis of the modulation rule, and verifies that the object of cognition for the award of prospective decision on constitutionality control effects involves a risk analysis. In an attempt to frame the rule of modulation at the “Matrix Incidence Rule”, it concludes about the need for inclusion of a new criterion, here called “circumstantial”, at the normative hypothesis. It undertakes a study about the application of the modulation of effects in accordance with the supremacy of the constitution. The paper also focuses on the justifications given to the taxing power in the democratic state environment and the about the role of tax in the realization of fundamental rights and the protection of human dignity. It also explores and discusses the theory of the fundamental rights of taxpayers, correlates taxation to human rights, deals with the role of the principle of legal certainty in tax matters and concludes that its use, chiefly in the areas of modulation of effects, can only be given in favour of taxpayers. It talks about the role of the state in the fulfilment of fundamental rights, both social and individual, and the necessary mitigation of the deep separation between the interests of taxpayers and tax authorities, considering that both serve the same purpose, which is the realization of the human person. It aims to address that, in exceptional cases, the modulation of effects can be given in favour of the state, when its indispensability for maintaining public institutions or policies related to the implementation of fundamental rights is demonstrated. / O presente trabalho tem como objeto de estudo o instituto da modulação de efeitos, previsto no artigo 27 da Lei n. 9.868/99, quando aplicado em matéria tributária. A problemática surge do fato de que os direitos dos contribuintes têm reconhecido o status de direito fundamental, motivo pelo qual parte considerável da doutrina jurídica nacional entende que a modulação de efeitos, em matéria tributária, só pode se dar em favor dos contribuintes, tendo em vista que as razões de Estado jamais poderiam suplantar o exercício de direitos fundamentais. Situado o trabalho no atual momento do constitucionalismo, fixa-se o entendimento de que o atual Estado Democrático de Direito tem como pressuposto o resgate de pautas valorativas ao ordenamento jurídico, o que se deu pela atribuição de plena normatividade aos direitos humanos fundamentais, veiculados mediante conceitos indeterminados que conferem amplo espaço de atuação ao Poder Judiciário. Considerando esse quadro, examina-se o papel da argumentação jurídica na legitimação dos atos judiciais. Realiza-se estudo para identificação dos limites entre interpretação e discricionariedade judicial. Conclui-se pela possibilidade de utilização na decisão judicial de argumentos ditos práticos e consequencialistas, de conteúdo econômico ou não, desde que haja a sua devida recondução ao sistema jurídico, por meio de discurso racional. Empreende-se análise lógico-sintática da norma de modulação. Verifica-se que o objeto de cognição para a atribuição de efeitos prospectivos à decisão em controle de constitucionalidade envolve uma análise de risco e que, por isso, o órgão julgador é responsável tanto pela construção do fato típico quanto pela incidência da norma, o que se opera numa só ação. Na tentativa de enquadrar a norma de modulação à Regra Matriz de Incidência, advoga-se a necessidade de inclusão de mais um critério, chamado de “circunstancial”, no antecedente normativo. Empreende-se estudo acerca dos pressupostos para que a modulação de efeitos seja aplicada em conformidade com a supremacia da Constituição. Abordam-se as justificativas dadas ao poder de tributar no ambiente do Estado Democrático de Direito e o papel da tributação na concretização de direitos fundamentais e da proteção à dignidade humana. Discorre-se acerca da teoria dos direitos fundamentais dos contribuintes, correlacionando a tributação aos direitos humanos. Enfoca-se o papel do princípio da segurança jurídica em matéria tributária e se conclui que a sua utilização, principalmente em sede de modulação de efeitos, só pode se dar em favor dos contribuintes. Trata-se do papel do Estado na efetivação dos direitos fundamentais, tanto sociais quanto individuais, e da necessária mitigação da forte cisão entre interesses do Fisco e dos contribuintes, considerando que ambos se destinam à mesma finalidade, que é a realização da pessoa humana. Defende-se que em casos excepcionais a modulação de efeitos pode se dar em favor do Estado, quando demonstrada a sua imprescindibilidade para a manutenção de instituições ou políticas públicas ligadas à concretização de direitos fundamentais.

Section 11(a) of the Income Tax Act 58 of 1962 entitles taxpayers to a deduction in respect of expenditure actually incurred, provided that all the other requirements of section 11 and section 23 of the Act have been met. A company may issue its own shares, credited as fully paid up, as a payment for trading stock or services rendered, as was the case in C:SARS v Labat Africa (2011) 74 SATC 1. The question that was raised by this decision is whether the issue of shares constitutes “expenditure” as contemplated in section 11(a) of the Act. It is trite that a share in a company is a bundle of rights which entitle the holder to dividends when declared and to a vote in shareholders’ meetings and that a share does not come into the hands of a shareholder by way of transfer from the company, but is rather created as a bundle of rights for him in the company. In C: SARS v Labat Africa, the Supreme Court of Appeal decided that to issue shares as a payment for goods is not expenditure as contemplated in section 11(a) of the Act. The Act does not define “expenditure”. It has been interpreted in certain cases as a payment of money or disbursement, while it has been interpreted as the undertaking of a legal obligation in other cases. The Labat Africa case has been criticised for its interpretation of expenditure on the grounds that it is contrary to the principle that “actually incurred” does not mean “actually paid”. This research has argued that, in the context of the Labat Africa case, which related to an issue of shares in payment for goods, Harms AP’s judgment was concerned with showing why a share issue is not expenditure. He could not have intended to deny a deduction to transactions such as credit purchases.

The Internal Revenue Code invokes the concept of reasonableness as the major qualification for the stockholder executive compensation deduction for federal income tax purposes. However, neither the Code nor Regulations contain general guidelines for determining reasonable compensation. Consequently, disputes with the IRS are frequent, resulting in substantial litigation. The primary hypothesis of the study was that the IRS guideline variables were incapable of discriminating taxpayers who have won litigated reasonable compensation cases from those who have lost. The secondary hypothesis was that the IRS guideline variable group, the court case variable group, or the two groups combined were equally powerful in discriminating taxpayers who have won litigated reasonable compensation cases from taxpayers who have lost. The study included all unreasonable compensation cases litigated in the Tax Court from 195^ to September, 1980. Only cases related to the reasonableness of officer-shareholder compensation of closely-held corporations were included.

A referibilidade constitui uma relação de pertinência entre a atividade estatal realizada pelo Poder Público em contraprestação ao contribuinte pela submissão desse ao pagamento do tributo. O texto aborda a questão da presença da referibilidade nas diversas espécies tributárias, analisando-a a partir do Sistema Tributário Nacional brasileiro, de forma a pesquisar nele a existência de elementos para considerar a referibilidade como elemento tributário com matriz constitucional, analisando a tributação ambiental sob a ótica dos princípios constitucionais, direitos fundamentais do cidadão e dos valores maiores preconizados pela Constituição Federal. É realizada uma análise da referibilidade em razão da natureza da relação jurídica tributária, fazendo uma relação entre a função social dos tributos, em especial os ambientais, e a presença da referibilidade em cada espécie tributária. Também é realizada abordagem a respeito da referibilidade especificamente considerada em relação a tributos ambientais em sentido amplo e em sentido estrito. O enfrentamento do tema da necessidade da referibilidade ao contribuinte nos tributos ambientais é justificado tanto na incidência tributária como na desoneração tributária, fazendo, em relação a essa última, a necessária distinção entre a isenção e imunidade, com o que se identifica os benefícios tributários [também ditos fiscais] como elementos que proporcionam a efetividade do direito ao meio ambiente saudável, na medida em que incentiva o cidadão a comportamentos que justificam um prêmio, no lugar de uma sanção por comportamento indesejado. / Submitted by Marcelo Teixeira (mvteixeira@ucs.br) on 2014-06-04T18:02:56Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Rui Sanderson Bresolin.pdf: 440607 bytes, checksum: 683b0d210922f539832d116debabd912 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-04T18:02:56Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao Rui Sanderson Bresolin.pdf: 440607 bytes, checksum: 683b0d210922f539832d116debabd912 (MD5) / The referibilidade is a relation of relevance between the activity performed by the State Government in consideration of this submission by the taxpayer to pay tribute. The text addresses the presence of several species in referibilidade tax, analyzing it from the Brazilian National Tax System in order to search on the existence of factors to consider as part referibilidade tax constitutional matrix, analyzing the environmental taxation under the perspective of constitutional principles, fundamental rights of citizens and the larger values advocated by the Federal Constitution. It is an analysis of referibilidade due to the nature of the tax relationship, making a link between the social function of taxes, especially environmental ones, and the presence of each species in referibilidade tax. Approach is also being done about the referibilidade specifically considered in relation to environmental taxes broadly and narrowly. The approach to the theme of the necessity of the taxpayer in referibilidade environmental taxes is justified as both the tax incidence on tax cuts, making, in relation to the latter, the necessary distinction between the exemption and immunity, with which identifies the tax benefits [also said tax] as elements that provide the effectiveness of the right to a healthy environment, in that it encourages citizens to conduct justifying an award, rather than a punishment for misbehavior.

A referibilidade constitui uma relação de pertinência entre a atividade estatal realizada pelo Poder Público em contraprestação ao contribuinte pela submissão desse ao pagamento do tributo. O texto aborda a questão da presença da referibilidade nas diversas espécies tributárias, analisando-a a partir do Sistema Tributário Nacional brasileiro, de forma a pesquisar nele a existência de elementos para considerar a referibilidade como elemento tributário com matriz constitucional, analisando a tributação ambiental sob a ótica dos princípios constitucionais, direitos fundamentais do cidadão e dos valores maiores preconizados pela Constituição Federal. É realizada uma análise da referibilidade em razão da natureza da relação jurídica tributária, fazendo uma relação entre a função social dos tributos, em especial os ambientais, e a presença da referibilidade em cada espécie tributária. Também é realizada abordagem a respeito da referibilidade especificamente considerada em relação a tributos ambientais em sentido amplo e em sentido estrito. O enfrentamento do tema da necessidade da referibilidade ao contribuinte nos tributos ambientais é justificado tanto na incidência tributária como na desoneração tributária, fazendo, em relação a essa última, a necessária distinção entre a isenção e imunidade, com o que se identifica os benefícios tributários [também ditos fiscais] como elementos que proporcionam a efetividade do direito ao meio ambiente saudável, na medida em que incentiva o cidadão a comportamentos que justificam um prêmio, no lugar de uma sanção por comportamento indesejado. / The referibilidade is a relation of relevance between the activity performed by the State Government in consideration of this submission by the taxpayer to pay tribute. The text addresses the presence of several species in referibilidade tax, analyzing it from the Brazilian National Tax System in order to search on the existence of factors to consider as part referibilidade tax constitutional matrix, analyzing the environmental taxation under the perspective of constitutional principles, fundamental rights of citizens and the larger values advocated by the Federal Constitution. It is an analysis of referibilidade due to the nature of the tax relationship, making a link between the social function of taxes, especially environmental ones, and the presence of each species in referibilidade tax. Approach is also being done about the referibilidade specifically considered in relation to environmental taxes broadly and narrowly. The approach to the theme of the necessity of the taxpayer in referibilidade environmental taxes is justified as both the tax incidence on tax cuts, making, in relation to the latter, the necessary distinction between the exemption and immunity, with which identifies the tax benefits [also said tax] as elements that provide the effectiveness of the right to a healthy environment, in that it encourages citizens to conduct justifying an award, rather than a punishment for misbehavior.